This research investigates the impact of climate change on flood susceptibility assessment using four advanced deep learning models; Deep Learning Neural Network (DLNN), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Deepboost, and XGBoost; across different climate projections for the year 2100. The study incorporates climate scenarios under three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs); SSP 245 (moderate emissions), SSP 370 (high emissions), and SSP 585 (extreme emissions). Each model demonstrates distinctive strengths in flood risk prediction, with XGBoost offering a balanced and precise classification of flood-prone areas, while DLNN and ANN tend to highlight more extensive high-risk zones. Deepboost adopts a conservative approach, minimizing false positives but potentially underestimating the extent of flood susceptibility. Variables importance analysis shows that rainfall, slope, and land use/land cover (LULC) are critical factors influencing flood risk. The climate projections from the four models—ACCESS, CMCC-ESM2, MIROC6, and MRI-ESM2 show a clear trend: as emissions increase from SSP 245 to SSP 585, flood risks escalate significantly. Under SSP 585, regions considered moderate risk may face severe flood susceptibility by 2100. Under the SSP 370 scenario, flood susceptibility zones expand significantly, with many areas shifting from Moderate or Low to High or Very High risk, highlighting increased flood threats under intermediate climate change. In the more extreme SSP 585 scenario, widespread regions face elevated flood risks, indicating severe future impacts without strong emission reductions. The findings highlight the need for robust flood adaptation strategies, with XGBoost offering a balanced approach for urban planning and DLNN and ANN providing detailed high-risk zone identification for targeted mitigation efforts. This underscores the urgency of global emission reduction efforts to mitigate the worst effects of climate change.

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) is a major temperate fruit crop of the north-western Himalayan region and holds significant importance for both fresh consumption and processing industries. However, the predominance of traditional cultivars and changing climatic conditions have necessitated the evaluation of improved cultivars with better fruit quality and productivity under specific agro-climatic conditions. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the physico-chemical parameter of thirty apple cultivars belonging to delicious group, spur type and colour strains at ICAR- Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Regional Station, Mukteshwar, Nainital, Uttarakhand from 2023-25. The experiment was carried out in Randomized Block Design with three replications. Result showed that among all cultivars, the highest fruit weight (209.35 g), fruit volume (226.67 cc), fruit length (7.27 cm) and fruit diameter (8.37 cm) was recorded in cultivar Mollies Delicious while the lowest fruit weight (54.46 g), fruit volume (53.33 cc), fruit length (4.46 cm) and fruit diameter (5.48 cm) was recorded in Early Shanburry cultivar. The highest T.S.S. was recorded in Stark Spur (13.60 °B) while lowest in Vermont Spur (8.20 °B), whereas highest acidity was recorded in Lord Lambourne (1.07%) and lowest in Chaubattia Anupam (0.10%). The highest values for ascorbic acid (17.49 mg/100 g) were recorded in Red Chief, Rich-A-Red and Bright-N-Early while lowest in Red Spur (3.28 mg/100 g). The highest reducing sugar (7.58%) and total sugars (8.75%) was recorded in Tydeman Early Worcester. The highest carotene content (242.73 µg/100 g) was recorded in Lord Lambourne. The highest total anti-oxidant activity (45.11 mMTE/L) was recorded in Royal Delicious while lowest in Golden Delicious (34.44 mM TE/L). From the investigation it can be inferred that the cultivar Mollies Delicious, Chaubattia Princess, Oregon Spur, Golden Delicious performed better in the region under prevailing climatic conditions. From the investigation, it can be inferred that the cultivars Mollies Delicious, Chaubattia Princess, Oregon Spur, and Golden Delicious performed better under the prevailing climatic conditions of the region. These findings can be effectively utilized by farmers, horticulturists, and extension agencies for selection of suitable cultivars to enhance productivity and fruit quality. Therefore, these cultivars are recommended for commercial cultivation in similar agro-climatic conditions.

The Brahmaputra Valley in Northeast India belongs to the sub-tropical humid climatic condition with mean annual rainfall of 2500mm. Northeast India has a high forest cover and it accounts for about 21% of the total forest area in spite of covering only 8% of the nation's land area. It was estimated that the forest area is shrinking due to expansion of rice cultivation and tea and rubber plantation in this region. In this study, soil samples were collected from Nameri National Park near Tezpur, Assam, India, and surrounding commercial tea gardens and rice fields for evaluating the effect of changed land use on soil quality and sustainability. The land-use pattern has a considerable impact on the organic carbon pool in soil, and the carbon management index (CMI) in tea and rice was estimated at 82.09 and 38.70, respectively. The lability indices (LI) of tea and rice fields were 0.983 ± 0.114 and 0.675 ± 0.095, respectively, while LI of forest soil was 1.178 ± 0.183. The carbon degradation potential (CDP) of rice cultivation (0.765) was much higher than tea plantations (0.440). The carbon deterioration potential (CDP) of rice paddy soils was estimated at 0.765, and such a high CDP value was attributed to 650kgha-1yr-1 organic C loss for rice fields of this region. These data indicated that immediate adaptation of suitable soil management strategies is required for sustaining and then restoring the soil quality of rice fields in this region.

Small rainfed hill farms in the Indian Himalayan Region face ecological fragility, resource depletion, and farmland abandonment, requiring alternative livelihoods for vulnerable communities. This study assesses the economic viability and socioecological impacts of low- cost livelihood interventions for marginalized households in Uttarakhand' s Jyoli village (2020-2022). Using participatory action research, we implemented six eco- friendly interventions i.e. protected cultivation, backyard poultry, beekeeping, vermi- composting, bio- briquetting, and green skilling—among 150 purposively selected households (Scheduled Caste, Below Poverty Line, COVIDaffected, women- headed) from a cluster with baseline mean income ` 13, 134/HH/year. Daily input- output registers, beneficiary surveys, and cost- benefit analyses quantified outcomes over 24 months. Non- beneficiary households (n = 153) provided contextual comparison. Of 150 intervention households, 62 (41. 3%) achieved income doubling to ` 28, 935/HH by September 2022, primarily through poultry (85 HH; 2, 700 birds; B:C 2. 13; ` 69,56,951 revenue despite 17% mortality, χ ² = 4. 8, p = 0. 03) and polyhouses (41 units; 26. 16 t ha-1 vegetable yield—16 × higher than open fields, p< 0. 001; B:C 2. 66, 95% CI: 2. 12–3. 20). Overall project investment of ` 61,4,612 generated ` 97,6,976 output (net ` 5, 15, 515; aggregate B:C 2. 12). Scale of adoption explained 95% of income variance (r = 0. 975, p< 0. 001), while per- household profitability explained 77% (r = 0. 878, p< 0. 001). Complementary activities—beekeeping (81 kg honey; 27–73% pollination- driven crop yield gains), vermi- composting (68 quintals), and green skilling (91% women participants)—enhanced nutrition security and women' s empowerment (73. 2% self- confidence, 70.7% economic gains). However, only 42.9% reported reduced migration. Integrated livelihood models combining poultry with polyhouse- beekeeping can boost income under favorable conditions (support, inputs, demand). Success rate of 41% indicates potential but scalability faces barriers: chick supply, subsidized feed (56. 6% costs), veterinary services, market access, climate risk management. The model' s focus on SC/BPL and ecological benefits (biodiversity, fewer forest fires, water harvesting) offers climate- resilient development paths, though sustainability beyond project are duration remains uncertain.

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers, commonly known as Guduchi or Giloy, is an important medicinal climber widely utilized in traditional and modern pharmacology due to its rich repertoire of bioactive secondary metabolites. These phytoconstituents, including alkaloids, diterpenoids, glycosides, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds, are responsible for diverse therapeutic properties such as antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective activities. Increasing evidence suggests that environmental factors, particularly altitudinal gradients, significantly influence the biosynthesis and accumulation of these metabolites. However, systematic studies focusing on altitudinal variation in Northwestern Himalayan ecosystems remain limited. The present study aims to determine and evaluate the influence of altitude on the quantitative and qualitative variation of major secondary metabolites in T. cordifolia collected from different altitudinal zones of the Northwestern Himalayas. Plant samples were collected across low, mid, and high altitudes, followed by standardized extraction and phytochemical analysis using spectrophotometric and chromatographic techniques. The study further correlates environmental variables such as temperature, UV radiation, and soil conditions with metabolite variability. Preliminary findings indicate a significant increase in phenolic and flavonoid content at higher altitudes, likely as an adaptive response to environmental stressors such as increased UV radiation and lower temperatures. Conversely, certain alkaloids and glycosides showed optimal concentrations at mid-altitudinal ranges, suggesting complex ecological modulation of metabolic pathways. These variations highlight the importance of ecological factors in determining phytochemical profiles and medicinal efficacy. This study provides valuable insights into the ecological phytochemistry of T. cordifolia and emphasizes the need for altitude-specific harvesting strategies to maximize therapeutic potential. The findings contribute to the standardization of medicinal plant resources and support sustainable utilization and conservation of Himalayan biodiversity.

This conceptual paper interrogates the tension between infrastructure-led development and climate justice in Uttarakhand, a Himalayan state of India that serves simultaneously as an ecological common of national importance and a frontier for mega-project expansion. Drawing on political ecology, development economics, and post-development theory, the paper establishes that contemporary development in Uttarakhand is operationalised through a tripartite logic of growth-oriented Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA), national security imperatives, and political-electoral optics. This logic systematically constrains the scope of climate justice by rendering the costs of ecological destruction, community displacement, and intergenerational risk as externalities that fall outside the calculus of project approval. The paper introduces the concept of 'constrained climate justice' to capture how justice claims are not absent from policy discourse but are actively reshaped, diluted, and subordinated within dominant development frameworks. Using the Rishikesh-Karnaprayag Railway project as its principal illustrative case, the paper demonstrates how technocratic governance privileges economic valuation over social and ecological considerations. The study contributes to theoretical debates by reconceptualising climate justice not as an aspirational absence requiring insertion into development frameworks, but as a structurally constrained presence whose emancipatory potential is continuously curtailed by institutional architecture. The paper concludes by proposing alternative evaluation frameworks that could recalibrate the relationship between development velocity and justice claims in ecologically fragile regions.

ABSTRACT To evaluate seismic risk and comprehend the tectonic activity in the northeast Himalayan region, it is essential to have comprehensive knowledge of the crustal parameters and shear‐wave velocity contrast across the Moho ( δβ M ). Estimations of δβ M were carried out using seismological data recorded at 8 BBS located in the northeast corner of the Indian Plate in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis. The estimation of δβ M utilises P‐to‐s converted wave amplitude data that takes place at the crust–mantle boundary. The values of δβ M range from 1.72 to 1.88 km/s across the area under investigation. The Moho depth, V p / V s , and Poisson's ratios ( σ ) values have been taken from the published results below these stations. The crustal thickness ( H ) in the study region varies from ~38 km in the Brahmaputra Valley (Pashighat) to ~53 km at the northern boundary (Gelling) of the window. The average crustal σ varies from 0.23 to 0.38 throughout the study region. The thinner crust beneath the Tidding–Tuting Suture compared to the Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone of northwest Himalaya is caused due to the differences in convergence rate, higher exhumation rate, and mechanisms to accommodate collision and rotational tectonics. The scaling relation between δβ M with H , σ , and V p / V s is positive, which indicates the thick crust associated with a high δβ M , meaning that the presence of fluid at the lower crust in the study region. The scaling relation, variation in δβ M , σ , and V p / V s ratio can be explained by the presence of a low‐velocity zone in the lower crust. Previous studies suggest that the Siang Window is seismically active up to ~40 km crustal depth. It is suggested from present research that the accumulation of strain in the crust–mantle transition zone, which is rich in metamorphic dehydration fluids, dominated by water but possibly containing other volatiles, might be sufficient to generate seismicity in the lower crust. The sharp velocity contrast in the crust–mantle boundary may suggest strong deformation coupling between crust and the uppermost mantle. The identification of such a velocity contrast could allow tracking of temperature–pressure conditions responsible for the genesis of the crust–mantle boundary and their evolution.

Promoting good occupational health outcomes among farmwomen: evidence of a community-based strategy from North-Western Himalayan region, India

The western Himalayan region, particularly the Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh, was home to many freshwater lakes that represented ecologically critical systems sustaining high biodiversity and various essential ecosystem services, including nutrient cycling, climate regulation, and livelihood support. These lakes differed in size, altitude, and ecological characteristics. They contained diverse species of plankton and fish, which were key components of the aquatic food web, served as bioindicators of water quality, and played a crucial role in ecosystem functioning. This review aimed to assess the biodiversity and ecological integrity of freshwater lakes, with a focus on understanding the relationship between biological diversity, water quality, and environmental stressors. A systematic literature review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. For data collection, Google Scholar, PubMed, ResearchGate, Scopus, and ScienceDirect databases were searched using relevant keywords. Studies published between 2010 and 2025 focusing on freshwater lakes of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh were included, addressing ecological integrity, including water quality, biodiversity, trophic status, and pollution. The review revealed that these lakes supported diverse and functionally important planktonic and fish communities that regulated primary productivity and acted as reliable bioindicators of water quality. However, increasing anthropogenic pressures, including pollution, urbanisation, overexploitation, and unregulated tourism, were degrading water quality and disrupting ecological balance. Climate change, particularly glacial retreat and shifting precipitation regimes, further exacerbated these impacts, accelerating ecosystem instability and biodiversity loss. Overall, the freshwater lakes of the Himalayan region were under significant stress due to anthropogenic effects and climate change, resulting in declining water quality and biodiversity loss. To prevent further biodiversity loss and maintain ecological integrity, effective conservation strategies, strict policy implementation, and community participation were required to ensure long-term ecological sustainability.

Acute mountain sickness (AMS) poses a unique and formidable challenge to healthy personnel at high altitudes. This randomized controlled trial (RCT) protocol aimed to assess the effectiveness of Ayurvedic nutritional supplements in conjunction with a yoga protocol in reducing the incidence and severity of AMS among healthy personnel stationed in the challenging high-altitude landscapes of the western Himalayas. The proposed open-label, parallel-group RCT was conducted in apparently healthy individuals of any gender aged 18-50 years. The study was conducted at two distinct high-altitude stages within the western Himalayan region: stage I, situated at an elevation ranging from 9000 to 12,000 feet and stage II, spanning 12,000 to 15,000 feet. A total of 1660 participants (n=830 per stage) underwent random assignment in a 1:1 ratio to receive either the existing acclimatization schedule (AS) for high altitude (control group) or the Ayush intervention (Ayush group) in addition to the AS. The participants in the Ayush group received Ayurvedic nutritional supplements, including the Ayur-nutri kit (Ayush poshak yoga, 25 g, and Ayush cardiac care tea, 125 mL), twice daily, along with a yoga protocol (60 min daily) for 120 days. The primary outcome was the incidence of AMS, assessed using the 2018 Lake Louise Scoring System, and the proportion of participants with a Lake Louise Scoring System score of 6 or higher during the first 7 days from baseline. The secondary outcome measures included the proportion of participants with thromboembolic events; changes in coagulation and hemostasis activation markers and proinflammatory markers; and changes in self-reported negative emotional states (depression, anxiety, and stress), sleep quality, and overall quality of life (assessed through Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 items, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and 12-item short-form, respectively) on day 60 and day 120 from baseline. The study was funded in March 2023. The data collection was completed in December 2023. A total of 1660 participants were enrolled in the study. The analysis of the study data is in progress. The study outcomes are expected to be published by December 2026. This RCT was the first of its kind to explore the potential benefits of using Ayurvedic nutritional supplements and a yoga protocol in conjunction with the standard AS to reduce the occurrence and severity of AMS among healthy personnel. The outcomes of this trial can aid in better acclimatization and resilience among healthy personnel at high altitudes.

The present work aimed to perform the first comprehensive investigation on Aster thomsonii C.B. Clarke essential oil from the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand, India, examining its chemical composition, antibacterial, antioxidant activities, and molecular docking potential against key bacterial targets. The essential oil extracted via hydro-distillation with a yield of 0.3% v/w, corresponding to 0.3 mL per 100 g of fresh aerial parts and analysed by GC–MS, revealed forty-five compounds with β-selinene (21.10%), β-caryophyllene (11.26%), geranyl isobutyrate (9.47%), α-humulene (8.93%), and cis-α-bisabolene (8.89%) as major constituents. The oil exhibited concentration-dependent antibacterial activity, with minimum inhibition zones ranging from 5.3 ± 0.57 to 7.6 ± 1.15 mm. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values ranged from 6.25 to 25 µL/mL. The MIC of 6.25 µL/mL was observed against S. aureus, P. mirabilis, and X. oryzae, whereas R. solanacearum exhibited an MIC of 12.5 µL/mL and P. aeruginosa showed an MIC of 25 µL/mL. Antioxidant assays yielded IC50 values of 32.22 µL/mL (DPPH•) and 31.08 µL/mL (H2O2). The molecular docking identified α-cadinol, longicyclene, germacrene D, cubenol, and β-caryophyllene as strong binders (–6.6 to −8.6) kcal/mol, highlighting A. thomsonii essential oil as a promising source for drug discovery, antimicrobial and antioxidant therapeutics, and pharmacological applications.

Women’s safety in public transportation systems is a critical determinant of urban mobility, equity, and sustainable development. However, this remains a persistent global challenge that limits women’s freedom of movement. This study investigates the key determinants of women’s safety perceptions and experiences in public transport across urban, rural, and hilly regions of Uttarakhand, India. Using a qualitative research framework grounded in feminist epistemology and interpretive phenomenological analysis, this study employed a multi-theoretical framework that integrated the Theory of Planned Behavior, Theory of Interpersonal Behavior, Behavioral Decision Theory, Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Rational Choice Theory, and the Belief-Action-Outcome model. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 30 women participants aged 18–65 years, representing diverse socioeconomic backgrounds and geographical locations within Uttarakhand. Thematic analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s six-phase framework, which revealed complex interactions between individual perceptions, social influences, and infrastructural constraints shaping women’s mobility patterns. Key findings indicate that safety concerns are embedded within family-imposed restrictions, societal stigma, inadequate infrastructure, and fear of harassment, with age-specific patterns and regional disparities particularly pronounced in hilly areas. Participants demonstrated sophisticated adaptive strategies, including real time route changes, technology-driven safety tools, and crowd-avoidance techniques to mitigate risks. This study underscores the urgent need for region-responsive, multilevel interventions that combine technological innovation, social behavior change, and infrastructure reforms. Future research should adopt broader, more diversified samples across different geographic contexts and explore the intersectionality of gender with other identities to design more inclusive safety frameworks supporting evidence-based policy reforms for safer, more equitable public transportation systems.

White grubs have become a major destructive soil pest in recent years which damages apple and vegetable crops throughout Himachal Pradesh. The hidden root-feeding behavior of these insects leads to major economic damage which mainly affects horticultural farming areas located at mid-hill and high-hill elevations where farmers depend on these crops for their survival. The review combines research findings from India together with other geographical areas to study white grub distribution patterns, species variety, their reproductive patterns, environmental interactions and their effects on local economies particularly focusing on Brahmina coriacea which now threatens apple and potato crops. The review demonstrates how white grub outbreaks in the Himalayan region have been affected by climatic changes, forest disturbances, agricultural practice changes and crop diversification. The document presents current scientific discoveries about biological control methods, cultural practices and IPM approaches which focus on using entomopathogenic fungi, nematode sand light traps.

Forest fragmentation and Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) change are major drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation, particularly in landscapes undergoing infrastructure expansion. This study evaluates long-term LULC dynamics and forest structural fragmentation within the proposed China-Nepal railway corridor across the districts of Rasuwa, Nuwakot, and Kathmandu from 1990 to 2020. LULC classification identified eight major categories: forest, shrubland, grassland, agricultural area, barren area, water body, snow/glacier, and built-up area. A transition matrix approach was applied to quantify class conversions, while forest fragmentation patterns were assessed using spatial metrics, including edge, core, and perforated forest components. Results indicate that forest cover declined between 1990 and 2000, followed by partial recovery through 2020. Despite this recovery, fragmentation metrics reveal an increase in edge and perforated forest areas and fluctuations in core forest extent, suggesting structural reconfiguration of forest landscapes. Substantial forest persistence was observed alongside measurable transitions to agricultural and built-up land uses, highlighting dynamic landscape change rather than continuous forest loss. By integrating multi-decadal LULC transition analysis with spatial fragmentation assessment, this study establishes a structural baseline for the railway corridor prior to major infrastructure implementation. The findings provide spatially explicit evidence to support future environmental monitoring and informed landscape planning in ecologically sensitive Himalayan regions.

The general public in the Himalayan region is exposed to considerable radiation from indoor radon, thoron, and their decay products. The estimation of natural radiation, source apportionment, and concentrations of its decay products is vital for population health risk assessment. In this study, the inhalation dose and seasonal variability of indoor radon, thoron, and their progeny were investigated in the sub-mountainous Dhauladhar region of the north-west (NW) Himalaya, India. A total of 51 dwellings from 17 villages, such as cemented (H1), slate + mud (H2), and cemented + tin roofs (H3), were randomly selected for indoor radon, thoron, and their progeny measurements. The annual indoor average radon and thoron concentrations measured in H1 houses were 74.8-53.0Bq/m3, respectively. Whereas, in H2 and H3, it showed an average of 90.6, 67.8, 69.8 and 48.4Bq/m3, respectively. The correlation between indoor radon and thoron was found to be 0.77. The inhalation dose in the H1 was found to be 0.69-0.35mSv/y, respectively. Similarly, for the H2 and H3, the values found to be 0.80, 0.43,0.65 and 0.32mSv/y, respectively. The result suggests that the high indoor radon, thoron, and their progeny were recorded during winter seasons and radon and thoron levels in H2 houses was found slightly higher compared to the H1 and H2 houses, mainly depending on the type of dwelling, ventilation rate and cold environmental conditions.

A call for urgent action to protect wild yak in the Himalayan regions

Mountains are vital for biodiversity and endemism, particularly in alpine environments threatened by climate change. Most studies overlook endemic species, which are more vulnerable to climate variability and instability because of their narrow biological niches. This research examines the diversity and distribution of endemic species in the Western Himalayas, focusing on edaphic factors and altitude across three belts: the lower altitudinal belt (LAB), middle altitudinal belt (MAB), and upper altitudinal belt (UAB). Field sampling from 425 quadrats, spanning from 3000-4400 m, identified 102 endemic species from 68 genera and 31 families. Species richness peaked in the UAB (4000-4200 m), averaging 18.14 ± 6.18 species, demonstrating a positive correlation between elevation and endemic richness. Hemicryptophytes were prevalent, with microphylls being the most common leaf type. The study revealed that 58.8% of the endemic species are distributed across the broader Himalayan region, while 41.2% are restricted to the Western Himalayas. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) indicated strong ties between endemic species and environmental factors, with soil organic carbon (SOC) identified as a primary determinant. Additionally, a statistically significant decline in soil pH with elevation (p = 0.0049) negatively affected species richness (p = 0.0127). Edaphic variations influence species distribution, and conservation assessments highlighted the UAB as the zone with the highest number of endangered species. The results of this study may aid in formulating effective conservation measures to safeguard the valuable endemic flora of the Himalayan alpine zone.

Mineralogical profiling of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) over the Megacity Delhi and the Central Himalayan Region Nainital, India

Genetic diversity plays a crucial role in influencing evolution and adaptation. The order Primates is distinguished by advanced social structures, ecological adaptability, and extensive geographic distribution. These factors suggest that genetic variation within primate species is formed by both natural selection and historical population changes. Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) occupy a broad range across India. Their extensive genomic variation reveals significant intra-specific differences among populations. We sequenced and analyzed approximately 565 bases of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region from 236 fecal samples of wild Indian rhesus macaques, collected from 25 locations across 12 Indian states. We identified 66 haplotypes with overall haplotype and nucleotide diversity of 0.833 ± 0.023 and 0.0174 ± 0.0031, respectively. Among states, West Bengal_Sundarban showed the highest haplotype diversity (1.000 ± 0.126), while Delhi showed the lowest (0.182 ± 0.144). Phylogenetic analysis revealed two divergent clades. Clade 1 comprised North Indian cluster, including those from the Himalayan foothills, and Clade 2 comprised East Indian cluster. Genetic difference (Fst) of 80.05% observed between the two clades, indicating the presence of two deeply divergent mitochondrial lineages, suggesting the possible presence of two subspecies of rhesus macaques in India. However, this inference should be further validated using additional nuclear markers to confirm the taxonomic status. PCA plot and Median-joining (MJ) network analysis further revealed two haplogroups: Haplogroup I was primarily associated with North Indian cluster, while Haplogroup II from East Indian cluster. Interestingly, some individuals from the South Indian cluster, Telangana appeared in both Clade suggesting possible southward dispersal. Telangana, Manipur, Assam, West Bengal_Sundarban, and Odisha populations showed signatures of geographical and historical isolation. Demographic analyses indicated historical population contraction. The pronounced genetic structure and mtDNA divergence, when compared with rhesus macaques from other countries, further support the existence of two subspecies that can be confirmed with nuclear markers for robust taxonomic inference. Our study contributes to understanding genetic connectivity, population structure and migration patterns, which will aid in the long-term monitoring of Indian rhesus macaques.

This study presents the first year-long observations (January 2021-June 2022) of 17 non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) at a high-altitude rural site in the Himalayas (Munsyari: 2200m a.m.s.l.), a tourist destination influenced by nearby emission sources. Total NMHCs exhibited seasonal variability, with the lowest levels in winter and summer- monsoon (159.5-174.5 ppbC) and the highest levels in spring and autumn (174.5-197.8 ppbC). Aromatic hydrocarbons dominated the NMHC composition throughout the year, contributing about 85-89% of the total NMHCs. This seasonal variability suggests the combined influence of local emissions, boundary layer dynamics, temperature-driven emissions, upslope winds, and biomass burning processes. Further, hydrocarbon ratios highlighted the role of hydroxyl (OH)-driven oxidation processes in the removal of NMHCs. Correlation analysis and ternary plot also indicate contributions from local emission sources such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), diesel fuel emissions, and possible solvent use. In addition, the relatively higher levels (4-6 times) compared with other high-altitude sites (e.g., Mt. Abu and Nainital), together with variability-lifetime analysis, suggest the dominance of local sources at this site. However, levels were 3-14 times lower than those at Kathmandu and Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) sites. Reactivity-based analyses showed that p-xylene, m-xylene, isoprene, and toluene were major contributors to propylene-equivalent concentration (PEIC), ozone formation potential (OFP), and secondary organic aerosol formation potential (SOAFP). Health risk assessment indicated that non-cancer hazard ratios remained below the threshold, whereas lifetime cancer risk exceeded the USEPA limit, with benzene being the dominant contributor. Overall, these findings provide new insights into the distribution, sources, and atmospheric implications of NMHCs at a high-altitude rural site in the Himalayan region.