Himalaya Research Articles

Adaptation to Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the Hindukush-Himalaya: A Review

This study examines adaptation strategies to mitigate the risks posed by Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, encompassing Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Afghanistan. GLOFs occur when water is suddenly released from glacial lakes and they present significant threats to communities, infrastructure, and ecosystems in high-altitude regions, particularly as climate change intensifies their frequencies and severity. While there are many studies on the changes in glacial lakes, studies on adaptation to GLOF risks are scant. Also, these studies tend to focus on case-specific scenarios, leaving a gap in comprehensive, region-wide analyses. This review article aims to fill that gap by synthesizing the adaptation strategies adopted across the HKH region. We conducted a literature review following several inclusion and exclusion criteria and reviewed 23 scholarly sources on GLOF adaptation. We qualitatively synthesized the data and categorized the adaptation strategies into two main types: structural and non-structural. Structural measures include engineering solutions such as lake-level control, channel modifications, and flood defense infrastructure, designed to reduce the physical damage caused by GLOFs. Non-structural measures include community-based practices, economic diversification, awareness programs, and improvements in institutional governance, addressing social and economic vulnerabilities. We found that Afghanistan remains underrepresented in GLOF-related studies, with only one article that specifically focuses on GLOFs, while Nepal and Pakistan receive greater attention in research. The findings underscore the need for a holistic, context-specific approach that integrates both structural and non-structural measures to enhance resilience across the HKH region. Policy-makers should prioritize the development of sustainable mechanisms to support long-term adaptation efforts, foster cross-border collaborations for data sharing and coordinated risk management, and ensure that adaptation strategies are inclusive of vulnerable communities. Practitioners should focus on strengthening early warning systems, expanding community-based adaptation initiatives, and integrating traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches to enhance local resilience. By adopting a collaborative and regionally coordinated approach, stakeholders can improve GLOF risk preparedness, mitigate socioeconomic impacts, and build long-term resilience in South Asia’s high-altitude regions.

Molecular Identification of Onchocerciasis Vectors (Diptera: Simuliidae) from the Central Himalayan Landscape of India: A DNA Barcode Approach.

Background: Black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) are a notorious group of blood-sucking insects acting as vectors of various diseases in humans and other animals, most notable being Onchocerciasis. Due to its medical and veterinary significance, accurate and quick species identification is of utmost importance in the field of black fly research. DNA barcoding is one such taxonomic tool, aiding in quick and efficient species identification using molecular methods. Despite sporadic reports of ocular and cutaneous Onchocerciasis, especially from North-East India, Indian Simuliidae has been understudied due to lack of expertise on morphological taxonomy and lack of genetic library. Materials and Methods: Blackflies were collected from eight distinct locations in the Central Himalayan region that are part of the West Bengal, India, districts of Kalimpong and Darjeeling. Various traps were used to collect the specimens, and they were kept it in 70% ethyl alcohol. Following the morphological identification of each fly specimen, genomic DNA was extracted from its dissected legs using the QIAmp DNA extraction kit (QIAGEN, Germany). The voucher specimen slide was deposited in the National Zoological collection, ZSI, Kolkata, India. Results: This is the first comprehensive DNA barcoding study of black flies (Feuerborni and Multistriatum species group) using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequences along with morphological identification from the Central Himalayan region of West Bengal involving four species: Simulium dentatum, Simulium digitatum, Simulium praelargum, and Simulium senile. DNA barcode approach through ML tree clearly distinguished all the species with supporting PTP, ASAP, and GMYC analysis. Interspecific genetic distances were also calculated where S. dentatum and S. digitatum showed minimum distances in the study area. Conclusion: Coupled with a robust morpho-taxonomic framework, the DNA barcodes generated here will help with accurate species identification, which will lead to better management and control strategies for these harmful vector species at the study site.

Tree phenology of tropical semi-evergreen forest and its correlation with climatic variables in the Eastern Himalayan region of India

Tree phenology of tropical semi-evergreen forest and its correlation with climatic variables in the Eastern Himalayan region of India

Increasing Risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods Caused by Moraine Collapse due to Global Warming in the Himalayan Mountain Range

Increasing Risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods Caused by Moraine Collapse due to Global Warming in the Himalayan Mountain Range

Influence of Altitude and Climate on the Distribution of Vegetation, Ecosystem Services and Human Population in Garhwal Himalayan Region

Influence of Altitude and Climate on the Distribution of Vegetation, Ecosystem Services and Human Population in Garhwal Himalayan Region

Assessment of the earthquake hazard in the Ladakh and neighbouring Himalayan region (India) utilizing three-dimensional modelling of b-value and fractal (correlation) dimensions

Abstract Background This study investigates the seismic characteristics of Ladakh and its tectonically active surroundings through threedimensional fractal correlation dimensions and b-value analysis. Using the ISC catalogue from 1905 to 2023, we analyzed 1059 earthquakes with magnitudes between Mw4.0-7.9. Maximum likelihood estimation was employed for b-value calculation, while fractal dimensions were modeled using the correlation dimensions approach to evaluate seismic hazard zones across the region. Results The Ladakh Himalayan sequence exhibits an overall b-value of 0.77 ± 0.02, with spatial variations ranging from 0.38 to 4.11 across the study area. Correlation dimensions (D2) range from 0.16 to 1.47, indicating significant spatial heterogeneity in fracture patterns. A positive correlation between b-values and D was established (D2 = 0.652 + 0.133 b), which satisfies Aki's hypothesized relationship D = 3b/c for single fracturing events. Spatial distribution analysis identified four distinct hazard zones: (1) Zone A (intermediate hazard) - characterized by lower to moderate b-values and moderate correlation dimensions, typical of the Ladakh region; (2) Zones B and C (high hazard) - distinguished by coherent fault structures with fewer, larger faults including the Main Central Thrust, Kaurik Chango fault, and Karakoram Fault; and (3) Zone D (low hazard) - exhibiting high D2 and moderate to high b-values, suggesting fluid-rich regions where stress is distributed across many small fractures. Conclusion The positive b-D2 correlation in the Ladakh Himalayan region may indicate either aseismic slip, frequent occurrences of smaller earthquakes reducing the potential for large megathrust events, or distributed deformation patterns rather than localized ruptures. Our findings suggest that the Ladakh region experiences moderate tectonic stress, making it prone to mild to moderate earthquakes in the future. In contrast, the surrounding Himalayan areas exhibit considerably higher tectonic stress, indicating a greater probability of moderate to large earthquakes. This spatial variation in seismic characteristics provides valuable information for regional seismic hazard assessment and disaster management planning.

The Border as a Political Space and its Economic Correlate: The Case of McMahon Line

The border as a political space involves the issues of identity, territory and sovereignty. The political undercurrent in the border discourse makes conflict a permanent category. It becomes a contested space involving the interests of two opposing nations fighting over the determinacy of the border space. In this regard, the McMahon Line, named after the foreign secretary and negotiator of the 1914 Shimla Convention, Henry McMahon, constituted an 890 km boundary from Bhutan to Burma between Tibet and British India in the eastern Himalayan region. The Shimla Convention was attended by Henry McMahon (British India), Lonchen Shatra (Tibet) and Ivan Chen (China) to determine Tibet’s sovereignty. The exercise ended in an aporia. The political developments that took place following the Chinese annexation of Tibet and the Sino-Indian War in 1962 complicated the border politics between India and China. Therefore, this article discusses the political dimensions of the McMahon Line and explores the cross-border economic engagement with China at Kenzamane (Zemithang Circle) and Bum La in Tawang District, Gelling (Kepangla Pass), Upper Siang District, Mechuka (Lolla Pass) and Monigong (Dumla Pass), West Siang District and Kibithoo, Anjaw District of Arunachal Pradesh, India, to transform the political territoriality of border space into an economic one. Through the mediation of economy and trade participation, this transformative act is assumed to change the perception of border space from a restrictive to a participatory one. The economy may emerge as a catalyst to initiate peace between two contesting countries.

Forecasting the Impact of Climate Change on Apis dorsata (Fabricius, 1793) Habitat and Distribution in Pakistan

Climate change has led to global biodiversity loss, severely impacting all species, including essential pollinators like bees, which are highly sensitive to environmental changes. Like other bee species, A. dorsata is also not immune to climate change. This study evaluated the habitat suitability of A. dorsata under climate change in Pakistan by utilizing two years of occurrence and distribution data to develop a Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model for forecasting current and future habitat distribution. Future habitat projections for 2050 and 2070 were based on two shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP245 and SSP585) using the CNRM-CM6-1 and EPI-ESM1-2-HR-1 global circulation models. Eight bioclimatic variables (Bio1, Bio4, Bio5, Bio8, Bio10, Bio12, Bio18, and Bio19) were selected for modeling, and among the selected variables, the mean temperature of the wettest quarter (Bio8) and precipitation of the warmest quarter (Bio18) showed major contributions to the model building and strongest influence on habitat of A. dorsata. The model estimated 23% of our study area as a suitable habitat for A. dorsata under current climatic conditions, comprising 150,975 km2 of moderately suitable and 49,792 km2 of highly suitable regions. For future climatic scenarios, our model projected significant habitat loss for A. dorsata with a shrinkage and shift towards northern, higher-altitude regions, particularly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Himalayan foothills. Habitat projections under the extreme climatic scenario (SSP585) are particularly alarming, indicating a substantial loss of the suitable habitat for the A. dorsata of 40% under CNRM-CM6-1 and 79% for EPI-ESM1-2-HR-1 for the 2070 time period. This study emphasizes the critical need for conservation efforts to protect A. dorsata and highlights the species’ role in pollination and supporting the apiculture industry in Pakistan.

Unveiling margin of safety and break-even point of open vis-à-vis protected capsicum cultivation in the northwestern Himalayan state

Unveiling margin of safety and break-even point of open vis-à-vis protected capsicum cultivation in the northwestern Himalayan state

Comprehensive Analysis of Local Earthquakes in the Eastern Himalaya Through Deep Scanning of the Bhutan Seismic Network

Abstract This work presents the implementation of an advanced deep-learning (DL)-based earthquake detection workflow on the Bhutan Pilot Experiment dataset, a five station seismic network that was deployed from January 2002 to March 2003 in Bhutan’s Eastern Himalaya region. Previous studies reported 175 local earthquakes in this dataset, not fully understanding the seismicity potential and tectonic settings of the area. To enhance the detection and location accuracy, we reprocess the dataset using a hybrid-pair-input DL model combined with an expert analyst check, enabling a more comprehensive and precise scanning of seismic events. Central to this approach is the well-known EQTransformer (EQT) model, which serves as a core tool, followed by a Siamese EQTransformer (SEQT) to further reduce the false negative rate through a pair-wise model. To deeply scan all potential events, we set extremely low-threshold parameters for both EQT and SEQT models. This strategy led to the SEQT demonstrating an approximately detected 32% increase in the average for P phases and an average of 14% for S phases in comparison to the EQT model. The identified seismic phases were subsequently linked using the Rapid Earthquake Association and Location method via grid search, resulting in a list of 2457 detected events. A meticulous recheck of these events by an expert analyst to assess their validity and the accuracy of detected phases led to the final count of 887 events. These events, which are more than five times the size of the reported earlier (175) events for this dataset, mainly cluster in eastern and central Bhutan, in particular along the Goalpara lineament, a well-known strike-slip fault, and three concentrated clusters of events with harmonic depth and geographical extents. These findings will enhance seismic hazard assessments and advance geophysical research in the region.

Phylogeography and genetic structure of domestic pigs in Uttarakhand and Jharkhand: a mitochondrial DNA perspective.

We aimed to explore the distribution and variation of porcine mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages in northern India, expanding on previous local-scale research by incorporating a broader, global context. A total of 82 domestic pigs samples from Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were sequenced for the mtDNA control region (417bp) and compared to 1517 published sequences of Sus scrofa from various regions worldwide. The Uttarakhand sequences, previously analyzed in a local context by our research group, were incorporated into this study for a broader global comparative analysis. The analysis revealed complex clustering patterns of 18 haplotypes with distinct phylogeographic signals, reflecting diverse maternal lineages within the domestic pig populations in these two states of India. Two distinct subspecies of wild boar (W1 and W2) were identified, providing strong phylogeographic evidence for their distribution in India. A novel cluster (MC-I), localized to the Chotanagpur plateau, was detected, offering insights into its connection with the D5 cluster. Significantly, the study found evidence for a separate domestication center in the Himalayan foothills, supported by the presence of most Uttarakhand samples in Cluster D3, linking it to ancient human migration and subsequent pig dispersal across the region. The diverse maternal lineages in Uttarakhand may be linked to ancient human migration, suggesting human-mediated dispersal of pigs in the region. These findings contribute to the understanding of Sus scrofa's evolutionary history and global migration patterns, emphasizing the genetic uniqueness of pigs in the Indian subcontinent and its significance in the broader context of porcine genetic resources.

Tracking the Seismic Deformation of Himalayan Glaciers Using Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry

The Himalayan belt, formed due to the Cenozoic convergence between the Eurasian and Indian craton, acts as a storehouse of large amounts of strain, resulting in large earthquakes from the Western to the Eastern Himalayas. Glaciers also occur over a major portion of the high-altitude Himalayan region. The impact of earthquakes can be easily studied in the plains and plateaus with the help of well-distributed seismogram networks and these regions’ accessibility is helpful for field- and lab-based studies. However, earthquakes triggered close to high-altitude Himalayan glaciers are tough to investigate for the impact over glaciers and glacial deposits. In this study, we attempt to understand the impact of earthquakes on and around Himalayan glaciers in terms of vertical displacement and coherence change using space-borne synthetic aperture radar (SAR). Eight earthquake events of various magnitudes and hypocenter depths occurring in the vicinity of Himalayan glacial bodies were studied using C-band Sentinel1-A/B SAR data. Differential interferometric SAR (DInSAR) analysis is applied to capture deformation of the glacial surface potentially related to earthquake occurrence. Glacial displacement varies from −38.9 mm to −5.4 mm for the 2020 Tibet earthquake (Mw 5.7) and the 2021 Nepal earthquake (Mw 4.1). However, small glacial and ground patches processed separately for vertical displacements reveal that the glacial mass shows much greater seismic displacement than the ground surface. This indicates the possibility of the presence of potential site-specific seismicity amplification properties within glacial bodies. A reduction in co-seismic coherence around the glaciers is observed in some cases, indicative of possible changes in the glacial moraine deposits and/or vegetation cover. The effect of two different seismic events (the 2020 and 2021 Nepal earthquakes) with different hypocenter depths but with the same magnitude at almost equal distances from the glaciers is assessed; a shallow earthquake is observed to result in a larger impact on glacial bodies in terms of vertical displacement. Earthquakes may induce glacial hazards such as glacial surging, ice avalanches, and the failure of moraine-/ice-dammed glacial lakes. This research may be able to play a possible role in identifying areas at risk and provide valuable insights for the planning and implementation of measures for disaster risk reduction.

Snow Cover Variability and Trends over Karakoram, Western Himalaya and Kunlun Mountains During the MODIS Era (2001–2024)

Monitoring the snow cover variability and trends is crucial due to its significant contribution to river formation and sustenance. Using gap-filled MODIS data over the 2001–2024 period, the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of three snow cover metrics were studied: number of days, onset and end of the snow cover season across fourteen regions covering the Karakoram, Western Himalayas and Kunlun Mountains. The obtained signals exhibit considerable complexity, making it difficult to find a unique factor explaining their variability, even if elevation emerged as the most important one. The mean values of snow-covered days span from about 14 days in desert regions to about 184 days in the Karakoram region. Given the high interannual variability, the metrics show no significant trend across the study area, even if significant trends were identified in specific regions. The obtained results correlate well with the ERA5 and ERA5-Land values: the Taklamakan Desert and the Kunlun Mountains experienced a significant decrease in the snow cover extent possibly associated with an increase in temperature and a decline in precipitation. Similarly, the Karakoram and Western Himalayas region show a positive snow cover trend possibly associated with a stable temperature and a positive precipitation trend.

CHANGING MOUNTAIN PASTORALISM AND ITS IMPACTS IN THE HINDU KUSH HIMALAYAN REGION: THE CASE OF KUSHUM, PAKISTAN

Pastoralism in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region of Pakistan has undergone significant sociocultural, economic and ecological changes over the last three decades. The economic value of mountain pastoralism has been underestimated and ignored, leading to the loss of Indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge and threatening food and livelihood security in the eastern Hindu Kush region. This study explores the changes and transformations in mountain pastoralism and their societal impacts, focusing on the loss of Indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge, traditional skills, food security and livelihood sustainability. Primary data were collected through extensive field surveys conducted from 2010 to 2023. Secondary data were obtained from census reports, rural settlement records, the Food Department of Lower and Upper Chitral districts and the Regional Meteorological Centre (RMC) Peshawar. The study found significant changes and transformations in various aspects of mountain pastoralism, including a decrease in livestock population, alterations in grazing arrangements, the abandonment of high-pasturing practices and the loss of Indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge and skills. Reduced livestock population causes shortage of meat, milk and other dairy products. Insufficient self-provision of livestock products has led to heavy dependence on external foodstuff on the market, which has raised the prices of food items to unaffordable levels, leading to food insecurity. Further, this is the first ever study to document ethnomedicinal Indigenous information about 61 plants species and one mineral and their therapeutic application. It is inferred that changes in mountain pastoralism underlay the swift erosion of traditional ethnomedicinal knowledge. Finally, this study provides nuanced insights for conservation of medicinal flora and establishes a foundational framework for further scientific investigations in phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology to evaluate novel active ingredients for potential drug discovery within the area. The findings will be useful for policymakers and practitioners in designing effective programmes and policies to decrease vulnerability and enhance food and livelihood security. This article was published open access under a CC BY-NC 4.0 licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

Comprehensive Assessment of Air Quality During Diwali Celebrations in Himalayan Foothill Cities

Comprehensive Assessment of Air Quality During Diwali Celebrations in Himalayan Foothill Cities

Respiratory Mycopathogens: A study of mycological, risk factors, clinical profiles and antifungal resistance pattern in a tertiary health care centre in the foothills of Himalaya

Respiratory Mycopathogens: A study of mycological, risk factors, clinical profiles and antifungal resistance pattern in a tertiary health care centre in the foothills of Himalaya

Creating, enhancing, and capturing environmental product values – Medicinal and spice plant trade in the Himalayan foothills

Creating, enhancing, and capturing environmental product values – Medicinal and spice plant trade in the Himalayan foothills

Crustal resistivity architecture beneath the Sikkim Himalaya and Foreland Basin, NE India: Constraint from magnetotellurics data

Crustal resistivity architecture beneath the Sikkim Himalaya and Foreland Basin, NE India: Constraint from magnetotellurics data

Role of traditional ecological knowledge in shaping climate resilient villages in the Himalaya.

Role of traditional ecological knowledge in shaping climate resilient villages in the Himalaya.

Assessment of light absorbing carbonaceous aerosol and its absorption properties from forest fire in Himalayan Critical Zone Observatory.

Assessment of light absorbing carbonaceous aerosol and its absorption properties from forest fire in Himalayan Critical Zone Observatory.