Higher Parental Education Level Research Articles

The Postsecondary Educational Progress of Youth From Immigrant Families

Approximately 650 youth from a variety of ethnic and generational backgrounds participated in a longitudinal study of the postsecondary educational experiences of youth from immigrant families. Youth completed questionnaires and provided official school records in the 12th grade and participated in a phone interview 3 years later. Youth from immigrant families demonstrated the same level of postsecondary educational progress as their peers from American‐born families across a broad array of indicators. In addition, youth from immigrant families were more likely to support their families financially, and some were more likely to live with their parents as compared with those from American‐born families. Variability among those from immigrant families suggested that youth from families with higher incomes, higher levels of parental education, and East Asian backgrounds were more likely to enroll and persist in postsecondary schooling as compared with their peers.

A quantification of preventable unintentional childhood injury mortality in the United States

Objective: To calculate the preventable fraction of unintentional childhood injury deaths in the United States. Design: Ecological study of cause specific unintentional childhood injury mortality rates across the 50 states...

Exploring differential attrition rates among system of care evaluation participants

AbstractThe purpose of the present study is to investigate differential attrition rates in terms of both demographic characteristics and initial levels of child functioning of participants in North Carolina's system of care evaluation. Participants included 303 families (78 dropped out of the study, a 26% attrition rate). Families dropped out of the evaluation for three main reasons: refusal to participate, moving, or inability to contact the family. The majority of families who dropped out of the study did so after completing only the baseline interview. Differential attrition did not exist in terms of demographic characteristics, but there was some support for possible differential attrition indicated by initial levels of child functioning in some cases. Additionally, higher parental education level predicted longer participation in longitudinal evaluation. Recommendations and implications for applied research are offered. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Comm Psychol 32: 167–176, 2004.

CHANGING PREVALENCE OF ASTHMA IN MIDDLE-SCHOOL CHILDREN IN TAIWAN

Objective To investigate whether changes in outdoor air pollutants, meteorology data, certain personal or environmental factors explain the changing prevalence of current wheeze, ever wheeze and physician-diagnosed asthma among Taiwanese middle-schools children. Methods Data from two cross-sectional national surveys between 1995 and 2001 were used. Study population was limited from 22 middle schools located within one-kilometer catchment areas of 22 air-monitoring stations in Taiwan. The main outcome measures were physician-diagnosed asthma, lifetime wheezy symptoms, and wheeze in current 12 months, as reported by parents. The effects of several personal and environmental factors on the change of three diseases were assessed by multiple logistic regression. Changes in air pollutants and meteorology data in communities were also compared with estimated prevalence changes of three diseases. Results 44,118 data from 1995 survey and 11,738 data from 2001 survey were left for final analysis. The prevalence of ever wheeze and physician-diagnosed asthma increased from 1995 to 2001 in both sexes. Prevalence of current wheeze decreased significantly in boys but not in girls. Three diseases were more commonly reported among children of lower age, higher parental education level, higher parental reported ambient air pollution level, and those who were exposed to ETS or incense, performed less exercise, and suffered from atopic eczema. When adjusted for these factors, the relative odds of three diseases (2001 to 1995) did not show significant changes. Communities with lower decreasing rate in sulfur dioxides level had higher increasing percentage in prevalence of three diseases. Conclusions Changes in listed personal and environmental factors did not seem to explain any of the observed changes in prevalence. However, correlates of these factors which have changed over time may still underlie recent changes in diseases. Sulfur dioxides may play an essential role as an indicator in trends of three diseases.

Statewide prevalence and correlates of walking and bicycling to school.

Travel to and from school can be an important and regular source of physical activity for youth. Few US studies have documented the prevalence and correlates of walking and bicycling to school. To examine the prevalence and correlates of walking and bicycling to school among middle and high school youth. Cross-sectional survey. Sixty middle schools and 62 high schools selected in North Carolina. Students in 6th through 8th grades (n = 2151) and in 9th through 12th grades (n = 2297) during the spring of 2001. Walking or bicycling to school in a usual week. Among middle school students, 9.4% usually walked to school and 4.1% usually bicycled to school at least 1 day per week. Among high school students, 4.9% usually walked to school and 2.8% usually bicycled to school at least 1 day per week. For middle school youth, walking or bicycling to school was more prevalent among boys and among nonwhites. For high school youth, walking or bicycling to school was also more prevalent among nonwhites. For middle school youth (but not high school youth), a higher body mass index (85th to less than 95th percentile) was associated with a reduced odds of walking to school. For high school youth (but not middle school youth), participating in physical education 1 to 4 days per week or never having an adult at home immediately after school was associated with walking or bicycling to school. Higher parental educational level was associated with a reduced odds of walking to school among high school youth. The descriptive information provided by this study broadens our limited understanding of the prevalence and correlates of walking and bicycling to school in the United States. Further qualitative and quantitative descriptive data are needed to develop successful interventions to increase walking and bicycling to school.

Catch‐up vaccination – the case of hepatitis B: identifying barriers and facilitating factors

ABSTRACTBackground Hepatitis B vaccine was introduced into the regular immunization schedule in Israel in 1992. At the time, a need for a catch‐up vaccination for those aged 4–18 years, became apparent.Study objective To evaluate the vaccination rate for hepatitis B among children aged 4–18 years.Subjects The study population consisted of a national sample of 1500 children aged 4–18 years, registered at large family practices and pediatric centres, belonging to Clalit Health Services (Health Maintenance Organization).Design and setting A total of 817 telephone interviews were conducted with parents of the sampled children regarding hepatitis vaccination status and facilitating factors or barriers for vaccination.Results The overall percentage of the children vaccinated was 19%, with 14.8% receiving the full immunization course. The variables found to be significantly associated with being vaccinated were (p < 0.05): families with one to three children; first born; higher education level of parents; number of parents’ visits to the physician in the last 3 months, higher parents’ immunization status; and younger parents. The main reason for vaccination noted was a recommendation. Of those not immunized, 50% noted that the main reason was a lack of recommendation.Conclusions and Implications forpractice The outlined factors found to be associated with vaccination might benefit others facing vaccination catch‐up programs and the central role the primary care physician has as a recommending factor. Careful planning is clearly needed in developing an effective catch‐up program.

Better psychological functioning and higher social status may largely explain the apparent health benefits of wine: a study of wine and beer drinking in young Danish adults.

Findings from a recent series of Danish studies suggest that moderate wine drinkers are healthier than those who drink other alcoholic beverages or those who abstain. To identify possible explanatory factors associated with the health benefits of wine consumption through the examination of a wide spectrum of social, cognitive, and personality characteristics related to both beverage choice and health in young Danish adults. Descriptive cross-sectional study of characteristics associated with beverage choice in a sample of 363 men and 330 women between the ages of 29 and 34 years, selected from the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort on the basis of perinatal records. Socioeconomic status, education, IQ, personality, psychiatric symptoms, and health-related behaviors, including alcohol consumption, were analyzed. The outcome variables were subjected to linear and logistic regression analyses with 2 factors (beer and wine), each with 2 levels (drinking or not drinking a certain beverage type). Wine drinking was significantly associated with higher IQ, higher parental educational level, and higher socioeconomic status. Beer drinking was significantly associated with lower scores on the same variables. On scales concerning personality, psychiatric symptoms, and health-related behaviors, wine drinking was associated with optimal functioning and beer drinking with suboptimal functioning. Our data demonstrate that wine drinking is a general indicator of optimal social, cognitive, and personality development in Denmark. Similar social, cognitive, and personality factors have also been associated with better health in many populations. Consequently, the association between drinking habits and social and psychological characteristics, in large part, may explain the apparent health benefits of wine.

PREDICTIONS OF FRESHMAN GRADE‐POINT AVERAGE FROM THE REVISED AND RECENTERED SAT® I: REASONING TEST

ABSTRACTThe impact of revisions in the content of the SAT® and changes in the score scale on the predictive validity of the SAT were examined. Predictions of freshman grade‐point average (FGPA) for the entering class of 1994 (who had taken the old SAT) were compared with predictions for the class of 1995 (who had taken the new SAT I: Reasoning Test). The 1995 scores were evaluated both on the original SAT Program scale and on the recentered scale introduced that year. The changes in the test content and recentering of the score scale had virtually no impact on predictive validity. Other analyses indicated that the SAT I predicts FGPA about equally well across different ethnic groups. Correlations were slightly higher for higher levels of parental education and family income, and grades were more predictable for students with intended majors in math/science (mathematics, engineering, and biological or physical sciences) than for students with other intended majors. Correlations of the SAT I and the composite of SAT I scores and high school grade‐point average (HSGPA) with FGPA were generally higher for women than for men, although this pattern was reversed at colleges with very high mean SAT I scores. When a single prediction equation was used for all students, men tended to get lower grades than predicted and women got higher grades than predicted. African‐American and Hispanic/Latino men received lower grades than predicted, but women in these groups performed as predicted by the composite. Both men and women with intended majors in math/science got lower grades than would be predicted by an equation based on scores for all enrolled students.

The Influence of Family-Based Risk and Protective Factors on Adolescent Substance Use

ABSTRACT The influence of family-based risk and protective factors on adolescent substance use was examined in this study. Parental education level, ethnic background, religious affiliation, sibling substance use, family conflict, and family involvement were the specific risk and protective factors examined. Five thousand and nine adolescents in the state of Utah were randomly sampled and completed the survey. Responses of 4,983 adolescents were included in the data analysis. High parental education level, religiously affiliated, and family involvement are protective factors for adolescent substance use. Ethnic minority background, sibling substance use, and family conflict are risk factors for adolescent substance use. Future implications for intervention and research in relation to family-based risk and protective factors are discussed.

Socioeconomic status and blood pressure reactivity in healthy black adolescents.

Adolescents in low-socioeconomic-status environments are more susceptible to illnesses, such as hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. This study examined the influence of both neighborhood- and family-level socioeconomic status (SES) on blood pressure (BP) reactivity in a healthy sample of 76 black adolescents. It was hypothesized that a higher level of parental education and/or income would reduce the elevated BP reactivity associated with living in poorer neighborhoods. Census-derived data were obtained using each participant's address. Neighborhood level of SES was based on percentage of households below the poverty line, female-headed households, owner-occupied housing, percentage vacant housing, and average number of persons per household. Family level of SES was based on self-reported level of parental education and annual family income. Adolescents participated in a competitive video game to establish their BP reactivity scores. As predicted, adolescents who lived in poorer neighborhoods had lower diastolic BPs if their parents were more (versus less) educated (P<0.05; 7+/-8 versus 13+/-6 mm Hg). Adolescents who lived in poorer neighborhoods also had significantly lower diastolic BP reactivity (P<0.05) if their family had a higher (versus lower) annual income (7+/-7 versus 12+/-8 mm Hg). These data are the first to demonstrate the buffering effect of family SES on the negative health consequences of living in low-SES neighborhoods in healthy black adolescents.

Effects of Family Structure on the Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender

This study compares how being raised in an original, two-parent family and being raised in other family structures affects educational achievement, occupational status, and earnings attainment for a national sample of 30- to 59-year-old women and men. Data are derived from the 1989 Panel Study of Income Dynamics. Findings suggest that family structure has different effects by gender. Although both men and women from original, two-parent families earn more, on average, than those from other family structures, for women, this effect occurs through educational attainment. For men, the association between family structure and attainment is explained by other family background variables, including smaller family size, being Catholic, higher levels of parental education, and being White. Men who are raised by both natural parents are not advantaged educationally, compared with those who grow up in other types of family structures. A cohort analysis for men that compares baby boomers with prebaby boomers, however, suggests contradictory effects of family structure that deserve more exploration. Key Words: divorce, earnings attainment, family structure, gender, two-parent families. How does family structure in childhood affect an individual's subsequent socioeconomic wellbeing? We know that the absence of the father lowers cognitive test scores for young children (Mott, 1993) and that being raised by a single parent may interfere with high school graduation (Coleman, 1988; McLanahan, 1985; Shaw, 1982) and with the availability of funding for higher education (Steelman & Powell, 1991). McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) argue that children raised by only one biological parent are deprived of economic and social resources, which negatively affects their future success. Boys who grow up in original, two-parent families have a greater chance of achieving a higher occupational status than those raised in families headed by women (Duncan & Duncan, 1969), and boys who are raised by their mothers have a greater chance of ending up in occupations with lower status than those their fathers held (Biblarz & Raftery, 1993). Amato and Keith (1991) indicate that children who experienced parental divorce are more likely than those raised in original, two-parent families to exhibit psychological, behavioral, social, and academic problems. A great deal of evidence suggests that being raised without both natural parents involves costs for both children and the larger society. (See McLanahan & Booth, 1991, and Seltzer, 1994, for comprehensive reviews and Demo, 1992, for some counter arguments.) These studies do not tell us, however, whether divorce affects children when they mature to adulthood. In addition, prior research on the effects of family structure on socioeconomic outcomes frequently has failed to consider effects by gender by considering men only (Biblarz & Raftery, 1993; Duncan & Duncan, 1969; Greenberg & Wolf, 1982; Krein, 1986) or has been limited by confining attention to outcomes in young adulthood (Hill, Augustoniak, & Ponza, 1987). This article extends previous work by providing a clear causal picture of the effects of childhood family structure on adult socioeconomic outcomes for both men and women. We differentiate two broad categories of family structure: those respondents who were raised by both natural parents most of the time until they were 16 years old (original, two-parent family status) and those who report that they were not. We provide a rationale for using these broad categories and expand on this definition. We study (a) how growing up with both natural parents affects educational attainment, occupational status, and earnings, compared with growing up in other family structures, and (b) whether these effects differ by gender. THEORETICAL GUIDANCE Human capital and status attainment perspectives provide useful bases for studying the effects of family structure on adult socioeconomic outcomes. …

Ketoacidosis at the diagnosis of type 1 (insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus is related to poor residual beta cell function. Childhood Diabetes in Finland Study Group.

The determinants of the degree of metabolic decompensation at the diagnosis of type 1 (insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and the possible role of diabetic ketoacidosis in the preservation and recovery of residual beta cell function were examined in 745 Finnish children and adolescents. Children younger than 2 years or older than 10 years of age were found to be more susceptible to diabetic ketoacidosis than children between 2 and 10 years of age (< 2 years: 53.3%; 2-10 years: 16.9%; > 10 years: 33.3%). Children from families with poor parental educational level had ketoacidosis more often than those from families with high parental educational level (24.4% v 16.9%). A serum C peptide concentration of 0.10 nmol/l or more was associated with a favourable metabolic situation. Low serum C peptide concentrations, high requirement of exogenous insulin, low prevalence of remission, and high glycated haemoglobin concentrations were observed during the follow up in the group of probands having diabetic ketoacidosis at the diagnosis of IDDM. Thus diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis is related to a decreased capacity for beta cell recovery after the clinical manifestation of IDDM in children.

Atopic eczema and other manifestations of atopy: results of a study in East and West Germany.

Within an environmental health study, dermatologic examination of 1273 pre-school-age children (5-7 years old) was carried out in selected areas of East (n = 287) and West (n = 987) Germany in spring 1991. On the basis of comparable genetic background, the influence of a different exposure to air pollutants on the manifestation of atopic diseases was investigated. Halle an der Saale (East Germany) and Duisburg (North/South) as well as Essen (West Germany) were chosen as polluted study areas, whereas the countryside town of Borken (West Germany) served as a control region. Outdoor pollution with particles and SO2 was significantly higher in Halle an der Saale. Of the total study group, 12.9% suffered from atopic eczema at the time of examination. The prevalence was highest in East Germany (17.5%; adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.39, confidence intervals [GI] 0.77-2.52, compared to Borken). The reported frequencies of hay fever and asthma in the total study population were 2% and 1.3%, respectively, without significant differences between study sites. Some 34.7% of the children showed at least one positive skin prick test reaction; significantly (P < 0.001) higher sensitization rates were obtained in western regions (Essen, Duisburg-South) than in the control region (Borken) and East Germany. Multivariate analysis of the prevalence of atopic eczema showed associations with parental predisposition (OR 1.52, CI 1.03-2.25), sex (for boys, OR 0.63, CI 0.43-0.92), location (Duisburg-South vs Borken OR 0.52, CI 0.30-0.96), month of investigation (May vs April, and March vs February OR 0.55, CI 0.37-0.81), contact with rabbits (for girls, OR 2.90, CI 1.36-6.19), animal fur in bedrooms (2.17, 1.01-4.67), indoor use of gas without hood (1.68, 1.11-2.56), and distance of homes from a busy road (< 50 m 1.71, 1.07-2.73). Nonsignificant associations were observed for history of helminthic infections (OR 1.61, CI 0.98-2.64) and high parental education level (OR 1.83, CI 0.83-4.02). In East and West Germany, atopic eczema seems to follow a course different from that of respiratory allergic diseases and specific sensitization, a fact which underlines the need for a differentiated analysis.

Small influence of parental educational level on the survival of children with leukaemia in the Netherlands between 1973 and 1979

We studied the effect of parental educational level (PEL), an indicator of socio-economic status (SES), on survival of children with acute lymphoblastic (ALL) and non-lymphoblastic leukaemia (ANLL). All children with ALL and ANLL diagnosed in The Netherlands in the period 1973–1979, registered by the Dutch Childhood Leukaemia Study Group and followed until 1991 were included. Bone marrow and blood smears had been uniformly classified in a central laboratory; cases with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) were subdivided into standard risk (SR) and high risk (HR). PEL, assessed as a risk indicator in a separately conducted population-based case-control study of the same children (response rate: 88%), was divided into low, when neither of the parents had more than elementary school or lower vocational education, and high when either had more. Children with SR ALL of high PEL parents had a slightly higher 10-year survival rate than of low PEL parents (58% versus 54%, P = 0.25), whereas survival for the latter increased more ( P = 0.06) from a lower level in the period 1973–1975. However, children of low PEL parents with HR ALL and ANLL had a higher 10-year survival rate compared with children of high PEL parents ( P = 0.10 and 0.22, respectively). Children without information on PEL, non-responders, migrants and with missing values exhibited slightly worse survival rates. The influence of PEL on survival of acute leukaemia in children in The Netherlands during 1973–1979 appeared small or even equivocal. Small differences in SES and optimal geographic and financial access to care, delivered through national treatment protocols, may be responsible for these results.

Immunization Status and Reasons for Immunization Delay Among Children Using Public Health Immunization Clinics

To determine whether children attending our local health department clinics were being immunized in a timely manner, and to investigate the reasons for children not being immunized on schedule. Cross-sectional research design. Five Salt Lake City/County Health Department immunization clinics in Utah. All patients presenting to the clinics for immunization from November 1990 to March 1991 when minor illness is prevalent. Data were gathered through interview and questionnaire. Children were mostly white; they came from two-parent households with reasonably high incomes and high parental education level. Only four children were denied vaccination, all for inappropriate timing. None were denied for illness. More than 75% had postponed bringing their children in for immunization. The most common reason given for delay was minor illness in the child. Even in this "low-risk" population, parental misperception regarding immunizations is a significant, contributing factor to low immunization rates. Public educational programs directed at increasing parental knowledge must be developed.

Social epidemiology of chickenpox in two British national cohorts.

To provide a quantitative description of factors independently predictive of reported chickenpox infections in two national cohorts of British children. Longitudinal cohort study design employing logistic regression analysis of data obtained in the 1970 British Births Survey (later to become the Child Health and Education Study, CHES), and the 1958 British Perinatal Mortality Survey (later to become the National Child Development Survey, NCDS). One-week birth cohorts covering the whole of the United Kingdom. Data were obtained from questionnaires administered to the carers of 10,196 children born in the UK between 5 and 11 April 1970 (CHES) and 10,927 children born in the UK between 3 and 9 March 1958 (NCDS). These numbers consist of the whole of the surviving cohorts excluding those for whom data were incomplete. Biological, social, and medical factors in the parents and children, as recorded by the child's principle carer or from clinical notes. Chickenpox by the age of 10 years was reported to be more common in the children of advantaged families (higher social class, higher parental education levels), with a higher prevalence in those parts of the United Kingdom normally associated with affluence, such as the South East and South West of England, and lower rates in Wales and Scotland. Chickenpox by 10 years was also associated with more crowding in the home. A similar but less marked pattern occurred for chickenpox by the age of 11 years in the 1958 NCDS cohort. This social distribution apparently reflected overall rather than age-specific susceptibility. The national and international pattern of chickenpox epidemiology indicate that both social and climatological factors may be important in defining groups at risk. Further research is indicated if a vaccination service is to be implemented in this country.

Morbidity in breast-fed and artificially fed infants

One-half of the healthy newborn infants at a rural medical center were initially breast fed; the proportion declined to 4% by one year of age. Breast-feeding was associated with significantly less illnes during the first year, especially if continued beyond 41/2 months of age. Breat-fedding was associated with a higher level of parental education and, by inference, higher socioeconomic status. The health advantage of breast-feeding was still evident after controlling for parental educational status. In better educated families the difference in significant illness between infants who were artifically fed and those who were breast fed for prolonged periods of time was two- to threefold.