High LMX Research Articles

Upward leader-member exchange social comparison and organizational citizenship behaviour: the mediating role of interpersonal justice and moderating role of competitive climate

ABSTRACT Our research aims to extend the understanding of how and when leader – member exchange social comparison (LMXSC) influences followers’ work behaviour. Although previous research has highlighted the positive effects of downward LMXSC (i.e. comparisons with co-workers who have poorer LMX relationships), much less is known about upward LMXSC (i.e. comparisons with co-workers who have higher LMX). To address this gap, the present study explores the effects of upward LMXSC on follower organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) beyond downward LMXSC. Across two multisource (i.e. leaders and followers) and multi-wave studies, we observed a negative, indirect relationship between upward LMXSC and leader-rated OCB through perceived interpersonal justice. This relationship was found controlling for downward LMXSC, suggesting that upward LMXSC has unique effects on employee behaviour via feelings of interpersonal (in)justice. Furthermore, the negative relationship between upward LMXSC and interpersonal justice was accentuated by employee-perceived competitive climate in both studies. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Leader’s feelings of violation and high LMX relationships: A multilevel approach to examine a contextual boundary condition in LMX

AbstractLeader–member exchange (LMX), a well-researched leadership theory that focuses on the dyadic relationships between leaders and subordinates, is associated with positive subordinates’ outcomes. However, the contexts outside the LMX dyadic relationship might influence those favorable outcomes. In this study, we investigate the cross-level moderating effect of leader’s feelings of violation, as a contextual boundary, on LMX outcomes. Based on social exchange theory, crossover model, and the psychological contract literature, we discuss how the relationship between a subordinate’s perceived LMX and favorable subordinate attitudes and behaviors, such as performance, task-focused citizenship behaviors, and organizational commitment, is reduced when the leader experiences feelings of violation toward the organization. Using a three-wave time-lagged multilevel design with a sample of 226 subordinates and 39 leaders, we find that leader’s feelings of violation mitigate the positive association of perceived LMX on citizenship behavior and commitment but have no effect on performance. Research and practical implications are discussed.

The threat of electronic performance monitoring: Exploring the role of leader-member exchange on employee privacy invasion

The threat of electronic performance monitoring: Exploring the role of leader-member exchange on employee privacy invasion

고등학교 씨름지도자-선수 교환관계와 선수의 운동몰입 및 운동포기의도의 관계

This study was designed to find the relationship between high school Ssireum coach-player LMX, exercise flow and exercise discontinuance intention. To test this 255 high school Ssireum players who are registered in Korea Ssireum Association are sampled. The resulting data were processed by means of frequency analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, structure modeling analysis using SPSS 21.0 and AMOS 21.0 program. Results derived from the researches based on the aforementioned methods and data analyses are as follows: First, high school Ssireum coach-player LMX had positive effect on players’ exercise flow. Second, high school Ssireum coach-player LMX had negative effect on players’ exercise discontinuance intention. Third, high school Ssireum players’ exercise flow had no significant effect on players’ exercise discontinuance intention.

Social Determinants of Voice Outcomes: The Configurational Analysis of the Effects of LMX and Peer Relationships.

From the perspective of social relationships, this study extends the understanding of employee voice by examining voice outcomes, especially a voicer’s influence in their work team. In particular, we explore how two different social relationships, LMX and peer relationship, separately and jointly affect the ‘voice-influence’ relationship. Drawing on social network theory, we propose that higher LMX and central positions in peer networks (i.e., centrality in the friendship network) strengthen the positive impact of voice on individual influence. From a sample of 128 employees from three firms in South Korea, we found that two types of voice (promotive and prohibitive) are positively related with individual influence. This study also found that LMX strengthened the positive effect of promotive voice on a voicer’s influence. Moreover, LMX and peer relationship jointly affect the voice-influence relationship as follows: (1) a voicer with a high LMX-high centrality (in the peer network) is most influential within their team, (2) as for a low LMX-high centrality member, speaking up rather decreases individual influence. These results suggest that voice outcome is not unilateral. Rather, whose voice it is and where a voicer stands may matter more. We discussed the theoretical and practical implications of these findings in employee voice research.

How LMX Differentiation Attenuates the Influence of Ethical Leadership on Workplace Deviance: The Mediating Role of Psychological Empowerment.

The previous research has mostly proposed that ethical leadership contributed to less deviant behavior; however, recent studies found that this relationship might not always be significant. Therefore, a deeper and more nuanced investigation of how and when ethical leadership influences deviant behavior is highly warranted. In the present research, drawing on social learning theory as our overarching theoretical framework, we posited that high level of LMX differentiation will impede the effect of ethical leadership on employee deviant behavior, and thus, ethical leadership could reduce employees’ deviant behavior in teams with lower LMX differentiation rather than high LMX differentiation. Furthermore, we proposed that the interactive effect of ethical leadership and LMX differentiation on employee deviant behavior is mediated by employee psychological empowerment. More specifically, ethical leadership is more likely to enhance employee psychological empowerment in teams with low LMX differentiation than in teams with high LMX differentiation, and enhanced psychological empowerment contributed to less deviant behavior. Through a multi-source field study via 379 paired samples from the southwest of China, we found support for all of our hypotheses. The results’ contribution to research on organizational behavior, limitations in the study, and future directions for researchers are also discussed.

A Research on the Priming Mechanism of Workplace Loneliness from the Perspective of LMX Social Comparison

In organizations, leaders and subordinates often have different qualities of LMX, which is more common and salient, especially in Chinese collectivist and relationship-oriented culture. Employees with high LMX are easy to get more resources and support, while those with low LMX tend to get the opposite. At the same time, employees will compare their LMX to that of their colleagues and thus form a perception of relative LMX（called LMXSC）, which tends to have a greater impact on employees’ psychology and behavior than absolute LMX quality. Given this understanding, this paper attempts to reveal the process and mechanism of the impact of LMXSC on employees’ workplace loneliness. Combined with the social comparison theory and the relative deprivation theory, we propose a research model of LMXSC, competitive climate, relative deprivation and workplace loneliness, and construct the hypothesis based on the model.We collected data in two time points. Through the analysis of 689 valid samples, it is found that LMXSC has a significant negative effect on workplace loneliness directly; at the same time, LMXSC induces workplace loneliness indirectly by influencing individuals’ relative deprivation. When the competitive climate of departments or teams is higher, LMXSC will have a stronger impact on workplace loneliness through relative deprivation.This paper has three theoretical contributions: Firstly, we introduce a new theoretical perspective on the study of the trigger mechanism of workplace loneliness. From the perspective of social comparison, we confirm that not only the absolute quality of social relations（LMX）affects individual workplace loneliness, but also relative social relationship quality（LMXSC）is an important inducement to workplace loneliness. Secondly, this paper reveals a new mechanism of workplace loneliness inducing process. From the perspective of relative deprivation, it reveals the process mechanism of LMXSC on workplace loneliness. Thirdly, the boundary conditions for the impact of LMXSC on employees’ negative feelings are extended. In a highly competitive climate, LMXSC will have a stronger inhibitory effect on workplace loneliness.These findings remind organizational leaders that while optimizing the allocation of relationship resources, they should be aware of the possible adverse effects of LMXSC, and actively take measures to improve employee relations within the organization. Firstly, leaders in a team or department should try to treat subordinates in a fairer way, to leave employees with the impression that all team members have similar relationships with the leader. This measure can reduce the experience of relative disadvantages after comparing among coworkers. Secondly, on the premise of not hurting other employees, leaders should try their best to meet the emotional and relational needs of the most important core employees in the organization, to prevent these employees from feeling lonely in the workplace to the greatest extent. Thirdly, leaders should take various measures to build an environment of friendship, mutual support and win-win cooperation.

Welcome to Our (Divided) Team: Perceived Subgroups and LMX During Newcomer Socialization

Organizational newcomers’ early team and leadership experiences can determine socialization success. Team colleagues and leaders form the first points of contact for newcomers, but research on their role in socialization remains scarce. Based on the social identity approach and signaling theory, we expect perceived subgroups in the team and LMX to predict socialization outcomes (social integration, organizational attractiveness, intentions to remain) and psychological safety to mediate these processes. We conducted a two-wave field study and an experimental vignette study. Results confirmed most hypotheses, indicating that low perceived subgroups and high LMX function as precursors to successful socialization via psychological safety.

What if I have Two Bosses? Examining LMX Within Dual Jobholders

The present study sheds light on a growing body of literature; dual jobholders. We examine if and how high LMX relationships at one’s second job impacts one’s work experience at the primary job. Drawing from social exchange theory, we show that dual jobholders engaged in high LMX relationships at their second job exhibit lower work engagement at their primary job. Moreover, we identify intentions to leave one’s primary job as the mediating mechanism by which the relationship between second job LMX and primary job work engagement occurs. We extend work on social exchange theory by demonstrating that resources expended toward one relationship may have leave little resources left over to devote to other relationships. We also introduce the study of a supervisory variable, LMX, into the emerging literature on dual jobholders. We highlight that dual jobholders, who have more than one supervisor, may experience work in a different manner than their single jobholding counterparts. We discuss the theoretical, research, and practical implications of our work.

How proactive personality affects psychological strain and job performance: The moderating role of leader–member exchange

How proactive personality affects psychological strain and job performance: The moderating role of leader–member exchange

Why does competitive psychological climate foster or hamper career success? The role of challenge and hindrance pathways and leader-member-exchange

This study integrated research on competitive psychological climate (CPC) and successful career development within transactional stress theory and the job-demands resources model. The theoretical model assumed two different processes from CPC at work that might either foster or hamper career success. Specifically, CPC might be positively related to work engagement (motivation-enhancing path, CPC appraised as challenge) or burnout (energy-decreasing path, CPC appraised as hindrance), which then should be positively or negatively related to objective and subjective career success, respectively. High versus low leader-member exchange relationships are assumed to moderate the relationships between CPC and work engagement and burnout. In Study 1, we tested the theoretical model within a sample of 808 academic scientists from different research fields in Germany. By doing so, we applied conditional indirect effects analyses within a path-modeling framework. The results largely supported the theoretical model, and showed that CPC is positively related to the number of publications and career satisfaction via work engagement under the condition of a high LMX quality. By contrast, CPC was negatively related to career satisfaction via burnout under the condition of a low LMX quality. Within Study 2 and an additional independent sample, results showed that these pathways are explained via hindrance and challenge appraisals of CPC. We discuss these results against the background of competition-based HR systems, as well as the integration of challenge–hindrance frameworks in career developmental research.

When Does the Leader’s Positive Expression Get a Positive Response from Members?

Although researchers have argued that the leader’s positive affective display will effectively trigger the member’s work motivation, this affective display has not always caused desirable outcomes. This research addresses these important issues through considering three- way interaction of the characteristics of expression, the positive affect of the members, and LMX. To verify our hypotheses, 698 days from 47 leaders and 146 members were collected through the Experience Sampling Method. The analysis was conducted using HLM, and the results showed that, for members with high LMX, the positive effect of perceived deep acting on work engagement was strengthened when positive affect was high, and the negative effect of perceived surface acting was weakened when positive affect was high. On the other hand, members with low LMX showed a stronger positive effect of perceived deep acting on work engagement when positive affect was high, and the negative effect of perceived deep acting was mitigated when positive affect was low. These results highlight that LMX acts as a context of the affective display between the leader and the member and the effect of displaying positive affect relies on the member’s perception of the characteristics of the expression and the affective state.

Linking authoritarian leadership to employee organizational embeddedness, LMX and performance in a high-power distance culture: a mediation-moderated analysis

PurposeThis study has two primary objectives: (1) to shed light on the mechanism by which authoritarian leadership unfolds its impact on such critical aspects of subordinates' work lives as job satisfaction and in-role performance and (2) to identify the moderating conditions which place limits on the impact of authoritarian leadership on work outcomes.Design/methodology/approachData were collected on 552 supervisor-subordinate dyads from the United Arab Emirates. A series of research hypotheses were tested using a mixed-method statistical approach, including CFA and moderated hierarchical regression analysis.FindingsAs predicted, authoritarian leadership exerts negative impact on subordinates' job satisfaction and performance through poor quality LMX and weak employee organizational embeddedness. Both LMX and employee embeddedness mediated the negative relationship between authoritarian leadership and outcome measures while power distance moderated the relationship of authoritarian leadership with LMX and employee organizational embeddedness. Low power distance orientation was found to exacerbate the negative impact of authoritarian leadership on the quality of both LMX relationships and employee embeddedness.Research limitations/implicationsThe study shares limitations of most studies cast in the survey research design.Practical implicationsThe findings underscore the importance of work environment in nurturing high quality LMX relationships and employee organizational embeddedness to buffer the negative effect of authoritarian leadership on subordinates' job satisfaction and performance. In high power distance cultures where workplace inequality is largely rationalized, subordinates who perceive their leaders as authoritarian tend to show low job satisfaction and poor in-role performance. These findings illustrate the importance of management intervention in the early stage of recruitment and selection to attract managers receptive to egalitarian leadership approaches who can equip subordinates with appropriate resources to enhance their job satisfaction and performance outcomes.Originality/valueThe study offers valuable new insights into the mechanism by which authoritarian leadership influences work outcomes in a high-power distance culture. It represents first systematic effort in the Middle Eastern context to identify the conditions that mediate the linkage between authoritarian leadership and work outcomes. The study adds value to the literature by investigating the moderating role of power distance at the individual level of analysis. It detects significant differences in subordinates' perception of power inequality in the workplace in a culture viewed as a high-power distance culture and illustrates how such differences in turn shape the quality of LMX and employee organizational embeddedness.

How Do Leader–Member Interactions Influence the HRM–Performance Relationship? A Multiple Exchange Perspective

ABSTRACT Recently, the strategic human resource management literature has witnessed a burgeoning interest in examining individual perceptions of HRM. However, this line of research primarily focuses on unlocking mediating processes through which experienced HR practices affect outcomes. Here, we extend the current discourse by investigating how the quality of relationship with first-line managers (FLMs) interacts with individual’s experienced high-performance work systems (HPWS) in explaining variance in such individual outcomes as task performance and knowledge sharing. Analyses of 160 dyadic data demonstrated that individual–level HPWS is positively associated with both performance measures. More conspicuously, we found that the effects of HPWS on employee outcomes become weaker under the condition of high LMX and interactional justice. We discuss the implications of our findings.

Multifocal Studies about LMX: Impact of Team Level LMX, LMX Differentiation and Quality on Multi Efficacy and Stress

Although the concept of LMX has been introduced for more than 40 years, many team-level researches utilizing it have not been conducted. Also, despite the dyadic relationship between LMX and its subordinates, researches about the effect of LMX on the leader are insufficient. This study explored this problem by focusing on the different effects of team level LMX, LMX quality and LMX differentiation. Generally, since LMX quality affects attitudes and behaviors of members, this study explains the effect on self-efficacy at the individual level. Team level LMX and LMX differentiation, on the other hand, are team-level variables that will affect team-efficacy rather than an individual self-efficacy. Further, these team-level LMX variables will affect not only the positive factors, but also certain negative factors. A high Team level LMX means the leader treats and cares about the members individually. In this case, the leader will be under pressure. This study explains the different effects of LMX on the level of analysis and verifies the effects of LMX on the leader''s time stress as well as its advantages. Through this process, this paper is meaningful to study the effectiveness of LMX at various levels and to suggest new perspectives.

Leader Member Exchange in Leaders’ Support for Voice: Good Relationships Matter in Situations of Power Threat

While previous research underscores the role of leaders in stimulating employee voice behaviour, comparatively little is known about what affects leaders’ support for such constructive but potentially threatening employee behaviours. We introduce leader member exchange quality (LMX) as a central predictor of leaders’ support for employees’ ideas for constructive change. Apart from a general benefit of high LMX for leaders’ idea support, we propose that high LMX is particularly critical to leaders’ idea support if the idea voiced by an employee constitutes a power threat to the leader. We investigate leaders’ attribution of prosocial and egoistic employee intentions as mediators of these effects. Hypotheses were tested in a quasi‐experimental vignette study (N = 160), in which leaders evaluated a simulated employee idea, and a field study (N = 133), in which leaders evaluated an idea that had been voiced to them at work. Results show an indirect effect of LMX on leaders’ idea support via attributed prosocial intentions but not via attributed egoistic intentions, and a buffering effect of high LMX on the negative effect of power threat on leaders’ idea support. Results differed across studies with regard to the main effect of LMX on idea support.

THE COMBINED EFFECT OF LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND LEADER OPTIMISM ON FOLLOWER JOB OUTCOMES

Leader-member exchange theory is one of the most widely researched leadership theories, and a substantial number of former studies have investigated the effect of leader-member exchange on different follower job outcomes. However, there is a lack of research in the literature on the combined effect of leader-member exchange and leader emotional expressivity on follower job outcomes. The aim of this study is to contribute to the leadership and emotions literature by investigating the combined effect of leader-member exchange and the leader emotional expressivity of optimism on follower job outcomes of affective organizational commitment, trust in leader, and job satisfaction. In order to test the hypotheses of the study, an experiment was undertaken in which four imaginary leader types were described. After reading the leader descriptions, respondents were given a survey about their self-foreseen affective organizational commitment, trust in leader, and job satisfaction, with the assumption that they were actually working with the imaginary leader. The findings of the study suggest that both high LMX and low LMX leaders who displayed optimism aroused higher levels of the three follower job outcomes than their counterparts who did not display optimism.

Feeling obligated yet hesitant to speak up: Investigating the curvilinear relationship between LMX and employee promotive voice

Recent LMX research suggests that due to boundary conditions, the benefits of high‐quality LMX relationships may not be as straightforward as previously thought. In the voice domain, meta‐analytic evidence further shows that there is substantial variation in the effect sizes reported for the relationship between LMX and voice behaviour. To develop a more thorough understanding of the nature of the LMX–voice relationship, in the present study we draw from LMX theory and the voice literature to theorize and test the curvilinear indirect effect of LMX on employee promotive voice via employees’ felt obligation for constructive change (FOCC). We suggest that this curvilinear effect is contingent on employees’ perceptions of co‐worker voice behaviours and leader solicitation of voice. Survey data collected from 256 employees and their supervising manager working at a large Chinese Internet finance company largely support our predictions. Our findings show that at low‐to‐moderately high levels, LMX is positively associated with promotive voice via FOCC. However, this positive relationship turns negative at very high level of LMX. Results also show a negative relationship between LMX and FOCC (and a negative indirect effect of LMX on promotive voice via FOCC) in the presence of higher levels of co‐worker voice or lower levels of leader solicitation of voice. Contributions to the LMX and voice literatures are discussed. Limitations and future directions are also discussed.Practitioner points High‐quality LMX relationship is not always beneficial to organizations as it may discourage employees from speaking up with new ideas or suggestions at very high levels of LMX. When co‐workers voice, employees are less likely to speak up with new ideas or suggestions as they feel their obligation to improve the organization may already be fulfilled by others. Leader solicitation can effectively encourage employee voice in high LMX relationships.

Leader-member exchange and employee resilience: the mediating role of regulatory focus

PurposeThis study aims to investigate whether leader–subordinate exchange (LMX) quality influences subordinate resilience. Drawing upon Higgins’ (1998) regulatory focus theory, it is hypothesized that high LMX leaders induce a positive appraisal of situations which primes promotion regulatory focus in subordinates which in turn increases employee motivation and resilience.Design/methodology/approachThe study uses a cross-sectional survey design. Responses were collected from 139 employees of three information technology and enabled services organizations in India. Data were analyzed using PLS-based structure equation modeling package ADANCO.FindingsLMX was found to be positively related to employee resilience. Promotion regulatory focus mediated the relationship between LMX and employee resilience.Practical implicationsThe study demonstrates that leader interaction and behaviors can promote resilience in employees. Organizations need to see how supervisors can be trained to “frame” challenges and adversity in a manner that motivates employees and promotes resilience.Originality/valuePrevious studies have found different types of leadership styles to be associated with subordinate resilience. This suggests that there are certain factors across various leadership styles that influence resilience. The study uses LMX theory to suggest that it is not leadership style but underlying dimensions such as trust, reciprocity and clarity that play a vital role in cultivating employee resilience.

The relationship between attachment style and creativity: The mediating roles of LMX and TMX

ABSTRACTThe capacity and willingness of employees to deploy their creativity in the pursuit of organisational goals is a cornerstone of many organisations’ competitive advantage. Drawing on the actor-context interactionist perspective on creativity, we propose that insecure attachment styles act as distal antecedents that reduce employee creativity through the mediating role of social exchange relationships (i.e., leader-member exchange [LMX] and team-member exchange [TMX]). To test the proposed model, data were gathered from 192 employees and their respective supervisors in 12 engineering organisations. Hierarchical multiple regression and Monte Carlo mediation using the lme4 and mediation packages in R was performed to test the proposed hypotheses. Results revealed that while high quality LMX and TMX relationships are positively associated with creativity, insecure attachment styles have significant negative effects on employees’ perception of the quality of their LMX and TMX relationships, which, in turn, lead to lower creative output. Taken together, our results reveal the important influence of insecure attachment styles on creativity and in particular highlight the central role of leader-follower and team member relations as underlying mechanisms in this regard. We discuss the implications of our findings for research and practice.