High Lead Levels Research Articles

Health Remedies as a Source of Lead, Mercury, and Arsenic Exposure, New York City, 2010-2019.

Objectives. To describe the types of health remedies collected during poisoning investigations in New York City over a 10-year period that were found to contain high levels of lead, mercury, or arsenic. Methods. Between 2010 and 2019, the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene collected 584 samples of health remedies during poisoning investigations and store surveys for lead, mercury, or arsenic analysis. Results. There was a significant association between blood lead levels and estimated cumulative daily lead exposures among adult users of rasa shastra Ayurvedic medications. Also, average blood lead levels among adult rasa shastra users were significantly higher than levels among those using other types of non-Ayurvedic health remedies. Conclusions. Rasa shastra Ayurvedic medications can contain very high levels of lead, mercury, and arsenic. This underscores the importance of screening for lead, mercury, and arsenic exposures within at-risk populations. Public Health Implications. The general ease of accessibility to rasa shastra medications raises concerns. There is a need for systemic change that results in primary prevention, that is, removal of the source through policy development and regulatory enforcement in the country of origin. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(S7):S730-S740. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306906).

Assessment of the Health Status of Children Exposed to Industrial Toxicants in the Towns with Developed Non-Ferrous Metallurgy of the Sverdlovsk Region

Introduction: In the Sverdlovsk Region, the risks posed by cadmium, arsenic and lead exposures account for higher disease rates in the most sensitive groups of population. Recent studies have shown that these toxicants have an effect on mineral metabolism, damage to liver cells, kidneys, immunity indicators, and the nervous system. Objective: To assess the levels of cadmium, lead and arsenic in biological fluids of preschool children aged 3–6 years, living in towns with developed non-ferrous metallurgy, and possible changes in the health status at the detected level of toxicity. Materials and methods: The study was conducted in six towns of the Sverdlovsk Region with developed non-ferrous metallurgy. Environmental pollution in the study areas was assessed based on data of socio-hygienic monitoring. Biological monitoring was carried out to establish the levels of toxicants in blood and urine of children. A descriptive analysis of chronic morbidity in preschool children was performed, and the results of a special health examination of children (including that by a pediatrician and a neurologist) were presented. Mathematical modeling using decision trees was carried out. Results: Health monitoring data indicate an excess of the average regional prevalence rates in the studied preschoolers in nine disease categories. According to the results of an in-depth examination of the preschool children, diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, diseases of the respiratory system, blood diseases and individual disorders involving the immune mechanism, and digestive diseases prevailed. Among concomitant diseases, the most prevalent were diseases of the digestive, nervous, and respiratory systems. Assessment of the neurological status showed that the largest percentage of children had residual cerebral insufficiency, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and cerebrastenic syndrome. Biomonitoring results indicated a higher level of lead, arsenic and cadmium in the biological fluids of those children. Mathematical modeling demonstrated statistically significant correlations between lead, cadmium, and arsenic concentrations in environmental objects, biomonitoring results, and clinical and laboratory examination data of children (the blood levels of alanine aminotransferase, zinc, total protein, phagocytic index, and the carrier of the marker of apoptosis CD95+). Conclusions: The results of biological monitoring were consistent with data on chronic morbidity in preschool children. Modeling data provided the body burden of toxicants, above which deviations of clinical and laboratory parameters from the reference values may occur. The findings can be used in implementation of targeted measures for disease prevention.

Signs of Phenotypic Changes in Children Constantly Exposed to Elevated Environmental Levels of Chemical Pollutants in the City of Nizhny Tagil

Background: Environmental epigenetics plays an important role in developing a phenotype of diseases. Objective: To identify signs of phenotypic changes in children constantly exposed to high environmental levels of chemical pollutants in the city of Nizhny Tagil. Materials and methods: The study was conducted in a specialized kindergarten for children suffering from different allergic diseases in the city of Nizhny Tagil. To detect phenotypic signs of environmental exposure, we used data on clinical diagnoses, medical history, and pediatric physical examination, as well as the results of a parent survey on allergies. We then measured blood and urinary levels of some metals and total IgE as a marker of lead poisoning in children. Results: According to clinical diagnoses, food intolerance was noted in 97.7 % of the children, 91.2 % suffered from allergic dermatitis, and almost 20 % were allergic to house dust. Phenotypic manifestations of food intolerance testified to the predominance of its skin phenotype. Every third child had symptoms of psychological disorders. The questionnaire-based survey revealed a positive allergic status in 83.1 % of the parents, mainly with skin manifestations. High blood levels of lead, nickel, cobalt, and cadmium exceeding the safe level by 23.6–240 % were observed in the study population. The syndrome of chronic xenogeneic intoxication was established in 57.3 % of cases and the syndrome of sensitization to low doses of chemicals – in 41.6 % of them. Almost 25 % of the children were underweight, which was associated with their blood cadmium levels. Conclusions: Our findings confirm the few literature data on such health effects of heavy metals in children as asthma, eczema and food allergies, as well as low body weight and height. Studies of the signs of phenotypic changes in the group of children suffering from allergies and exposed to environmental hazards are most likely to indicate the adverse impact of heavy metals on the immune system, manifestations of epigenetic mechanisms forming the allergy phenotype, which can potentially lead to transgenerational inheritance.

Association between trace metals exposure and hearing loss.

BackgroundTrace metals have side-effect on human health. The association between trace metals exposure and hearing loss remains unclear.MethodsA total of 8,128 participants were exacted for analysis of association between trace metals and hearing loss from the database of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) (2013–2018). Multivariable logistic regression and restricted cubic spline models were used to examine the association between trace metals and hearing loss.ResultsParticipants with hearing loss had a higher level of lead, cadmium, molybdenum, tin, thallium, and tungsten (all p < 0.05). After adjusting for confounders, compared with the reference of the lowest quartile, the ORs with 95%CIs for hearing loss across quartiles were 1.14 (0.86, 1.51), 1.49 (1.12, 1.98), 1.32 (0.97, 1.80) for cobalt, and 1.35 (0.98, 1.87), 1.58 (1.15, 2.16), 1.75 (1.28, 2.40) for tin. Individuals with the level of cobalt at third quartile had 49% higher risks of hearing loss than those at lowest quartile. And participants with highest quartile of tin had 1.75-folds risks of hearing loss than those with lowest quartile of tin. There were increasing trends in risks of hearing loss with a raised level of thallium (p for trend <0.05). Restricted cubic spline regression analysis indicated that there was a nonlinear association between hearing loss and the levels of tin (p for nonlinearity = 0.021). Subgroup analysis showed that individuals of female, without hypertension and diabetes, and with a higher level of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol had modified effects on the associations between hearing loss and exposure to tin.ConclusionsOur study indicated that exposure to cobalt and tin were significantly associated with hearing loss.

Kinetic Analysis of the Adsorption of lead (II) onto Activated Carbon from Tridax procumbens

Adults who are exposed to high levels of lead may develop hypertension and kidney damage. Lead exposure is dangerous for everyone, but it can have devastating effects on pregnant women and their babies. Methods such as membrane separation, ion exchange, precipitation, and biosorption are currently in use for the removal of lead pollution. Biosorption has the fewest negative aspects of these technologies due to its low operating costs, high efficiency at detoxifying low concentrations of toxicants, and small volume of disposal materials. The biosorption of the biosorption of lead (II) onto the activated carbon from Tridax procumbens is remodeled using nonlinear regression and the optimal mode was determined by a series of error function assessments. The best kinetic model for adsorption of lead (II) was Pseudo-1st order with a reasonable difference in terms of corrected Akaike Information Criterion to the next best model, which was pseudo-2nd order, and followed by the Elovich. However, the error function analyses especially the AICc was not conclusive in ranking the pseudo-1st order model as the best model due to the low (less than 5) absolute values of differences between the model. The pseudo-1st order kinetic constants obtained were qe (mg/g) of 6.181 (95% confidence interval from 5.009 to 7.352) and k1 (per min) of 0.007 (95% confidence interval from 0.004 to 0.009). Nonlinear modeling enables the determination of a 95 percent confidence interval for the uncertainty range, which can be used in model comparison and discriminant analysis.

Susceptibility to Environmental Heavy Metal Toxicity among Americans with Kidney Disease.

The consequences of low levels of environmental heavy metal exposure, as found widely in the United States, in those with impaired renal function remain underexplored. We examined the cross-sectional association of indices of renal function with lead and cadmium levels in blood and urine among National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) participants. We used the 1999-2002 cycle, which included measures of cystatin C, in order to quantify renal function most precisely and defined chronic kidney disease (CKD) as an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <60 ml/min per 1.73 m2. In weighted and adjusted analyses of 5638 participants, lead levels were 0.23 (95% CI, 0.03 to 0.42) μg/dl higher among participants with CKD, and 0.05 (95% CI, 0.01 to 0.09) μg/dL higher per 10 ml/min per 1.73 m2 lower eGFR. Cadmium levels were 0.02 (95% CI, 0.01 to 0.03) μg/L higher per 10 ml/min per 1.73 m2 lower eGFR. Black race significantly modified the association of lower eGFR with higher circulating lead levels (P interaction <0.001). A 10 ml/min per 1.73 m2 lower eGFR was associated with a 0.13 (95% CI, 0.06 to 0.21) μg/dl higher lead level among Black participants compared with 0.03 (95% CI, -0.04 to 0.11) μg/dl higher level among White participants. Among the 1852 participants with urinary metal measurements, despite higher circulating levels, those with CKD had significantly lower urinary lead levels (-0.16 [95% CI, -0.30 to -0.01] ng/ml) and urinary lead/creatinine ratios (-0.003 [95% CI, -0.004 to -0.001]). CKD is associated with higher blood lead levels, particularly among Blacks, and simultaneously, lower urinary lead levels, consistent with the hypothesis that CKD confers a state of heighted susceptibility to heavy metal environmental exposure by reducing its elimination. Given that low levels of exposure remain highly prevalent in the United States, further efforts to protect patients with CKD from heavy metal toxicity may be warranted.

Determination of Heavy Metals in Henna Leaves and Cosmetic Henna Products Available in Zliten, Libya

Henna is widely used by Libyan women as a cosmetic, which may contain lead (pb), cadmium (Cd) and other toxic heavy metals. The purpose of this study was to determine heavy metal content of seven henna products, imported and locally produced in Zliten, Libya. An analytical method was performed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). In terms of heavy metal content determination, the results revealed a significant difference between henna leaves and cosmetic henna samples. The premixed henna sample H2 had the highest heavy metal concentrations with a high level of lead (6.952ppm), exceeding the WHO's maximum limit and the (ASEAN) Guidelines on Limits of Contaminants for Cosmetics Heavy metal maximum limits, Lead (Pb) is 1 ppm. Nickel (Ni) levels in (H4=5.201ppm) and (H6=2.023ppm ) henna samples were found to be above the WHO's limit of 1.68ppm. The results indicated that such cosmetics expose consumers to high levels of Pb and Cu, and hence to potential health risks. Thus, investigating the sources and effects of heavy metals in such cosmetics is strongly advised.

Developing early warning systems to predict water lead levels in tap water for private systems

Lead is a chemical contaminant that threatens public health, and high levels of lead have been identified in drinking water at locations across the globe. Under-served populations that use private systems for drinking water supplies may be at an elevated level of risk because utilities and governing agencies are not responsible for ensuring that lead levels meet the Lead and Copper Rule at these systems. Predictive models that can be used by residents to assess water quality threats in their households can create awareness of water lead levels (WLLs). This research explores and compares the use of statistical models (i.e., Bayesian Belief classifiers) and machine learning models (i.e., ensemble of decision trees) for predicting WLLs. Models are developed using a dataset collected by the Virginia Household Water Quality Program (VAHWQP) at approximately 8000 households in Virginia during 2012–2017. The dataset reports laboratory-tested water quality parameters at households, location information, and household and plumbing characteristics, including observations of water odor, taste, discoloration. Some water quality parameters, such as pH, iron, and copper, can be measured at low resolution by residents using at-home water test kits and can be used to predict risk of WLLs. The use of at-home water quality test kits was simulated through the discretization of water quality parameter measurements to match the resolution of at-home water quality test kits and the introduction of error in water quality readings. Using this approach, this research demonstrates that low-resolution data collected by residents can be used as input for models to estimate WLLs. Model predictability was explored for a set of at-home water quality test kits that observe a variety of water quality parameters and report parameters at a range of resolutions. The effects of the timing of water sampling (e.g., first-draw vs. flushed samples) and error in kits on model error were tested through simulations. The prediction models developed through this research provide a set of tools for private well users to assess the risk of lead contamination. Models can be implemented as early warning systems in citizen science and online platforms to improve awareness of drinking water threats.

A Study of Maternal and Umbilical Cord Blood Lead Levels in Pregnant Women.

Lead is a highly toxic element which can cross the placental barrier and enter the fetus during pregnancy. Parental lead exposure has adverse effect on infant as well as on maternal health. As part of our program to investigate the lead poisoning in human population we investigated the maternal blood lead levels (MBLL) and umbilical cord blood lead (UBLL) levels in 200 pregnant women and collected their socio-demographic details. In the study we found high lead levels in both maternal and umbilical cord blood samples. The results showed 47.5% maternal blood (n = 95) detected with lead while 38.5% umbilical cord blood (n = 77) samples had lead concentration higher than that of reference range of ≤ 5µg/dL. We also found that the Spearman's correlation coefficient (rs) revealed a strong positive correlation between the MBLL and UBLL (rs = 0.63). The results from socio-demographic questionnaire demonstrated that the recent home painting (p = 0.002) and residing close proximity to traffic congestion (p = 0.05) were significantly associated with MBLL. Education, mother age, fuel and water sources were not significantly associated with MBLL. Iron and calcium deficiency along with tiredness, lethargy, abdominal pain were also reported in women having high lead level > 5µg/dL. Concludingly, on the basis of results obtained it may be stated that we found elevated BLLs in both pregnant women as well as in umbilical cord blood. The prevalence of elevated lead levels in mothers will expose the fetus to lead through placental barriers mobilization and it can have long term adverse effects on the developing fetus. Therefore, it is recommended that screening of blood lead levels be carried out in high-risk women based on their social, occupational, environmental, and individual factors. In addition, stringent regulations on lead-based products are also required from government agencies/authorities to reduce environmental lead burden and toxicity. Moreover, public awareness programs should be organized on hazardous effect of lead.

Increased hypertension risk for the elderly with high blood levels of strontium and lead.

Hypertension has long been recognized as the global health burden. Heavy metal pollution may be one of the environmental risk factors of hypertension. However, the association remains unclear. We studied the levels of aluminum (Al), vanadium (V), manganese (Mn), arsenic (As), selenium (Se), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), titanium (Ti), lead (Pb) and cobalt (Co) in whole blood, and the relationship between trace element exposure and hypertension in the elderly community-based Chinese population. A total of 1013 participants from the west of Anhui Province in China were consecutively enrolled in this study in 2016. The general sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyles, disease history and physical examination information were collected by face-to-face survey and physical examination. The levels of ten trace elements were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Multivariable logistic regression model was used to assess the association of trace element exposure with the risk of hypertension. Results showed that the odds ratio of hypertension in the highest quartile was 1.811 (95% CI 1.175-2.790, P trend = 0.005) and 1.772 (95% CI 1.121-2.800, P trend = 0.022), respectively, after adjusting for potential confounders, as compared with the lowest quartile of blood Pb and Sr levels.

Higher Lead and Lower Calcium Levels Are Associated with Increased Risk of Mortality in Malaysian Older Population: Findings from the LRGS-TUA Longitudinal Study.

The main objective of this study is to determine the association of various trace elements’ status with the 5-year mortality rate among community-dwelling older adults in Malaysia. This study was part of the Long-term Research Grant Scheme—Towards Useful Ageing (LRGS-TUA). The participants were followed up for five years, and their mortality status was identified through the Mortality Data Matching Service provided by the National Registration Department, Malaysia. Of the 303 participants included in this study, 34 (11.2%) participants had died within five years after baseline data collection. As compared to the survivors, participants who died earlier were more likely (p < 0.05) to be men, smokers, have a lower intake of total dietary fiber and molybdenum, higher intake of manganese, lower zinc levels in toenail samples, lower calcium and higher lead levels in hair samples during baseline. Following the multivariate Cox proportional hazard analysis, lower total dietary fiber intake (HR: 0.681; 0.532–0.871), lower calcium (HR: 0.999; 95% CI: 0.999–1.000) and higher lead (HR: 1.309; 95% CI: 1.061–1.616) levels in hair samples appeared as the predictors of mortality. In conclusion, higher lead and lower calcium levels are associated with higher risk of mortality among community-dwelling older adults in Malaysia. Our current findings provide a better understanding of how the trace elements’ status may affect older populations’ well-being and mortality rate.

Lead poisoning among asymptomatic individuals with a long-term history of opiate use in Golestan Cohort Study.

Recent reports of lead poisoning suggest that people who use opium may be exposed to high amounts of lead. Here, we investigate the association between opium use and blood lead levels (BLL) in a population-based cohort study. In 2017, we studied a random sample of 410 people who currently (both within the past year and the past month) used opium and 104 who did not from participants of the Golestan Cohort Study in northeast Iran. Participants were stratified by sex and tobacco use history, completed a comprehensive opiate and tobacco use questionnaire and provided blood. BLL was measured by Lead Care® IIBlood Lead Test Kit, validated by inductively coupled plasma triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. BLL was categorized as "<5 µg/dL", "elevated" (5-10 µg/dL), "high" (10-50 µg/dL), and "very high" (above 50 µg/dL). To assess the association between BLL categories and opiate use, route of consumption and weekly use, we used ordered logistic regression models, and report OR (odds ratio) and 95% CI (confidence interval) adjusted for age, sex, place of residence, education, occupation, household fuel type, and tobacco use. In the cohort, participants used only raw (teriak) or refined (shireh) opium, which were smoked (45%, n=184), taken orally (46%, n=189), or both (9%, n=37), for a mean duration of 24.2 (standard deviation: 11.6) years. The median BLL was significantly higher in people who currently used opium (11.4 µg/dL; IQR: 5.2-23.4) compared with those who did not (2.3 µg/dL; IQR: 2.3-4.2), and the highest median BLL was seen in oral use (21.7 µg/dL; IQR: 12.1-34.1). The BLL was <5 µg/dL among 79.8% of people with no opiate use, compared with only 22.7% in those using opium. BLL was elevated in 21.7%, high in 50.5% and very high in 5.1% of people using opium. About 95% of those with oral (180/189) or dual use (35/37) and 55% (102/184) of those who smoked opium had levels of blood lead above 5 µg/dL. The OR for the association between any opium use and each unit of increase in BLL category was 10.5 (95%CI: 5.8-19.1), and oral use of opium was a very strong predictor of increasing BLL category (OR=74.1; 95%CI: 35.1-156.3). This odds ratio was 38.8 (95%CI: 15.9-95.1) for dual use and 4.9 (95%CI: 2.6-9.1) for opium smoking. There was an independent dose-response association between average weekly dose and BLL among people using opium, overall and when stratified by route of use. Our results indicate that regular use of lead-adulterated opium can expose individuals to high levels of lead, which may contribute to mortality and cancer risks associated with long-term opium use.

Lead Ion Removal in Water Using Low Methoxy Pectin-Guar Gum Beads Hybrid Adsorbent

A high level of lead in the sediment will cause contamination of aquatic biota. Lead pollutants in water may be treated by an easy and common adsorption process. A combination of both environmentally friendly and renewable materials, low methoxy pectin (LMP), and guar gum as adsorbents can reduce the need of activated carbon which requires high temperatures in its synthesis process. LMP was prepared from high methoxy pectin using a demethylation process under alkaline conditions. LMP and guar gum are diluted in 1 M calcium chloride as a crosslinking agent. The degree of esterification was carried out to determine the demethylation process. Adsorption of lead was carried out with a lead concentration of 165 ppm in acidic conditions for 24 hours. Lead concentration was measured using AAS. Results show that the optimal pH for demethylation was 12. The ratio of 1:2 pectin-guar gum produces the strong beads related to more O-H bonds in guar gum that can be developed. pectin-guar gum beads can adsorb 63% of lead at pH 6 due to the development of hydro-complex metal ions under more basic conditions.

Relationship between exposure to cadmium, lead, and mercury and the occurrence of urinary incontinence in women.

Cadmium, lead, and mercury are nephrotoxic metals that are commonly found as hazardous pollutants in many areas of the USA. We examined the relationship between exposure to cadmium, lead, and mercury with the occurrence of urgency urinary incontinence (UUI) and stress urinary incontinence (SUI) in women. This study was conducted using data on women > 20years of age, collected between 2005 and 2016, who reported experiencing urinary incontinence in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Restricted cubic spline analysis was used to characterize a dose-response relationship between continuous exposure to different nephrotoxic metals and the occurrence of UUI and SUI. A total of 4406 women were included in this study, with 2624 (59.6%) suffering from SUI and 3177 (72.1%) suffering from UUI in the weighted population. The results of our multivariate analysis indicated that age, race, marital status, body mass index (BMI), and exposure to nephrotoxic metals were risk factors for developing UI. The odds ratio (OR; 95% confidence interval) for developing UI was positively correlated with the exposure to cadmium and lead in women. The OR of SUI occurrence increased with increasing levels of cadmium in blood, with a peak at 4µg/L. The OR of UUI occurrence increased with increasing levels of blood and urinary lead, with peaks at 7µg/dL and 5µg/L, respectively. The presence of mercury was not significantly correlated with the occurrence of SUI or UUI. Exposure to high levels of cadmium and lead, which are nephrotoxic metals, is associated with the occurrence of UI in women.

Results of the BfR MEAL Study: In Germany, mercury is mostly contained in fish and seafood while cadmium, lead, and nickel are present in a broad spectrum of foods.

The BfR MEAL Study provides representative levels of substances in foods consumed in Germany. Mercury, cadmium, lead, and nickel are contaminants present in foods introduced by environmental and industrial processes. Levels of these elements were investigated in 356foods. Foods were purchased representatively, prepared as consumed and pooled with similar foods before analysis. Highest mean levels of mercury were determined in fish and seafood, while high levels of cadmium, lead, and nickel were present in cocoa products and legumes, nuts, oilseeds, and spices. The sampling by region, season, and production type showed minor differences in element levels for specific foods, however no tendency over all foods or for some food groups was apparent. The data on mercury, cadmium, lead, and nickel provide a comprehensive basis for chronic dietary exposure assessment of the population in Germany. All levels found were below regulated maximum levels.

Possible role of lead in breast cancer - a case-control study.

Numerous risk factors have been associated with breast cancer (BC), exposure to metalloestrogen, like lead, being such. Since lead involvement in BC is still equivocal, we focused on lead levels in three compartments of BC patients, blood, healthy, and malignant tissues. Also, as the cholesterol role in cancer development was recognized at the beginning of the twentieth century and led to involvement in lipid profile impairment, we further extend our research on lipid profile and enzymes responsible for maintaining lipid balance in BC patients. Fifty-five women diagnosed with BC were enrolled in the study. Forty-one healthy women represented the control group. Lead levels in blood, healthy surrounding and malignant tissue, and lipid profile parameters in serum, were determined. Higher lead levels were obtained in surrounding healthy tissue samples compared to cancerous tissue samples, while blood lead levels of BC women did not differ significantly from the control group. The altered lipid profile scheme in women diagnosed with breast cancer contained significantly higher triglycerides levels (P < 0.001). Moreover, logistic regression analysis revealed triglycerides as a significant predictor of BC (OR = 2.6; P < 0.01). Although statistical significance was missing for lower paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) activities observed in BC women, multivariate logistic regression singled out PON-1 activities as significant BC predictors. The result of the present study further indicated oxidative status imbalance and tissue levels bioelements perturbation. Obtained results in the present study propose possible lead involvement in BC onset accompanied with bioelements redistribution and oxidative stress occurrence.

Combined effects of nucleotide-binding domain-like receptor protein 3 polymorphisms and environmental metals exposure on chronic kidney disease

Chronic inflammation is the cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD). The nucleotide-binding domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome plays a vital role in the inflammation process and is associated with the regulatory effects of NLRP3 gene polymorphisms. This study evaluated the association between NLRP3 gene polymorphisms and CKD, and further explored whether the association of environmental metals with CKD varied by the NLRP3 genotypes. A total of 218 CKD patients and 427 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were recruited in this clinic-based case–control study. Patients were identified as having CKD if their estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and stage 3–5 for at least 3 months. We examined the genotypes of fifteen common ssingle-nucleotide polymorphisms in NLRP3 genes. Concentrations of total urinary arsenic were examined by summing of urinary inorganic arsenic species. Concentrations of selenium, cadmium, and lead were measured from blood samples. Associations between NLRP3 polymorphisms, environmental metals exposure, and CKD were evaluated using multivariable logistic regression while controlling for confounders. We observed that the odds of carrying NLRP3 rs4925650 GA/AA genotypes, NLRP3 rs1539019 CA/AA genotypes, and NLRP3 rs10157379 CT/TT genotypes were significantly higher among CKD cases compared to controls, with the adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) were 1.54 (1.01–2.36), 1.56 (1.04–2.33), and 1.59 (1.05–2.38), respectively. The significant multiplicative interactions were identified between high levels of blood lead and NLRP3 rs4925650 GA/AA genotypes; high levels of blood cadmium or low levels of plasma selenium and the NLRP3 haplotype (rs4925648, rs4925650, rs12048215, and rs10754555) C-A-A-C multiplicatively interacted to increase the risk of CKD. Our results imply that NLRP3 polymorphisms may play an important role in the development of environmental metals exposure related CKD.

Study of Lead-Free Solder Joint Reliability

Solders are essential for the construction of many engineering materials. The use of soldering in electronic packaging has become increasingly critical in today's world. In the electronic manufacturing industry, alternative soldering materials based on tin metal have developed gradually over the last two decades. Manufacturing companies are primarily concerned about removing lead from electronic manufacturing and waste recycling by switching to the lead-free solder. Environmental and human health are adversely affected by exposure to high lead levels in consumer products. The manufacturing industry has switched to lead-free soldering to support their social responsibility initiatives. The three categories of lead-free solder are classified according to temperature range: high-temperature solder, medium-temperature solder, and low-temperature solder. This research is conducted based on the approach of study literature, which is obtained from some papers that generally explain lead-free solder. To provide additional knowledge which is expected to add new insights about the importance of lead-free usage and its behavior.

SERUM LEAD LEVELS IN FEMALE AGRICULTURAL FARM-WORKERS FROM BAHAWALPUR, PAKISTAN

Background: Lead (Pb) is a heavy metal present in our environment in soil, drinking water, air, petroleum products, insecticides and pesticides, and is excreted in body secretions like breast milk, saliva, semen, and sweat. We studied serum lead levels in lactating female farm workers of Bahawalpur who are exposed to various chemicals that contain lead arsenate. Methods: This study was conducted in the Department of Physiology, University of Health Sciences, Lahore after approval from the Ethical Review Committee. After informed consent, blood samples of 2.5 ml each from a total of 91 lactating mothers were collected. Serum lead levels were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrophotometry (ICP). Results: High lead levels were detected in 90 out of 91 (98.90%) women. Mean serum lead levels were 61.05±29.59 µg/L. Conclusion: The serum lead level was considerably higher than the WHO allowable level in our study population. Pak J Physiol 2022;18(1):36?8

Blood Lead Levels and Risk of Deaths from Cardiovascular Disease

Environmental exposure could be an important modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). In this study, we investigated the relation between lead exposure, measured as blood lead levels (BLLs) and CVD mortality in a national cohort. A total of 15,036 adults aged ≥19 who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1988 to 1994) as the baseline examination were followed up through December 31, 2010. Adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) derived from Cox proportional hazard regressions were used to estimate the risk of dying from CVD in association with BLLs. Cardiovascular mortality was 3.76, 8.11, and 14.77 per 1,000 person-years for patients in low, moderate, and high BLLs, respectively. After adjusting for potential confounders, patients in the high lead level had a significantly increased risk of death from all CVD (HR 1.35, 95% confidence interval 1.03 to 1.77), compared with those with low level. Participants in both moderate and high lead levels showed a significantly increased risk of death from heart disease, with an HR of 1.37 (1.04 to 1.81) and 1.60 (1.21 to 2.13), respectively. A significant linear association with all CVD and heart disease deaths was also seen with an HR of 1.08 (1.00 to 1.16) and 1.09 (1.02 to 1.16), respectively, per 1-unit increase in BLLs. In conclusion, the study demonstrates that increasing BLLs were associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular deaths, especially from heart disease. This further supports the possible cardiovascular effects that lead poses on patients at low levels of exposure and the importance of further reducing lead exposure in the general population.