High Yield Levels Research Articles

Future climate change scenarios differentially affect three abundant algal species in southwestern Australia

Three species of macroalgae (Ecklonia radiata, Sargassum linearifolium, and Laurencia brongniartii) were subjected to future climate change conditions, tested directly for changes in their physiology and chemical ecology, and used in feeding assays with local herbivores to identify the indirect effects of climatic stressors on subsequent levels of herbivory. Each alga had distinct physical and chemical responses to the changes in environmental conditions. In high temperature conditions, S. linearifolium exhibited high levels of bleaching and low maximum quantum yield. For E. radiata, the alga became more palatable to herbivores and the C:N ratios were either higher or lower, dependent on the treatment. Laurencia brongniartii was effected in all manipulations when compared to controls, with increases in bleaching, blade density, and C:N ratios and decreases in growth, maximum quantum yield, blade toughness, total phenolics and consumption by mesograzers. The differential responses we observed in each species have important implications for benthic communities in projected climate change conditions and we suggest that future studies target multi-species assemblage responses.

ARTP mutation and genome shuffling of ABE fermentation symbiotic system for improvement of butanol production.

Butanol is an ideal renewable biofuel which possesses superior fuel properties. Previously, butanol-producing symbiotic system TSH06 was isolated in our lab, with microoxygen tolerance ability. To boost butanol yield for large-scale industrial production, TSH06 was used as parental strain and subjected to atmospheric and room temperature plasma (ARTP) and four rounds of genome shuffling (GS). ARTP mutant and GS strain were co-cultured with facultative anaerobic Bacillus cereus TSH2 to form a symbiotic system with microoxygen tolerance, which was then subjected to fermentation. Relative messenger RNA (mRNA) level of key enzyme gene was measured by real-time PCR. The highest butanol titer of TS4-30 reached 15.63g/L, which was 34% higher than TSH06 (12.19g/L). Compared with parental strain, mRNA of acid-forming gene in TS4-30 decreased in acidogenesis phase, while solvent-forming gene increased in solventogenesis phase. This gene expression pattern was consistent with high butanol yield and low acid level in TS4-30. In summary, symbiotic system TS4-30 was obtained with butanol titer improvement and microoxygen tolerance.

Inexpensive ionic liquid mediated green synthetic approach of multi-functionalized regioselective β-lactam fused isoxazolidine heterocyclic hybrids

A novel efficient eco-friendly on “ionic liquid” method has been developed for the synthesis of multi-functionalized isoxazolidines through a nitrone 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction. The low cost and eco-benign room temperature ionic liquid, acetylcholine iodide-ethylene glycol (ACI/EG) accelerates the formation of the desired regioselective mono-/di isoxazolidine analogues and reduced the reaction time with high level of chemical yield. Furthermore, the recyclability of ACI/EG has also been investigated.

Extraction and purification of protease inhibitor(s) from seeds of Helianthus annuus with effects on Leptinotarsa decemlineata digestive cysteine protease

Abstract The aim of the current investigation was to purify cysteine protease inhibitors from sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L. cv. Record) (Asteraceae) seeds with potential activity on gut protease of Colorado potato beetle (CPB), Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Ammonium sulfate precipitated proteinaceous fractions; 0–30%, 30–50%, 50–70%, and 70–100% showed 41.03%, 48.66%, 41.53%, and 28.83% inhibition on the last instar larval gut general protease activity, respectively. Also, fraction 30–50% showed the highest inhibitory effect on digestive general protease activity of all developmental stages. This fraction was purified using two different chromatography techniques; ion-exchange using DEAE and affinity using SiO 2 -CPB larval gut enzyme mix. Four peaks of protein were eluted from ion-exchange chromatography using NaCl step gradient. When used Z-Ala-Arg-Arg-4msNA as cysteine protease substrates, the purification fold of first fraction was obtained 28.31, also the yield was 66.89%. Fraction of affinity chromatography obtained 26.98 purification fold and yielded 53.96%. Both of the purified protein fractions from two methods showed two similar bands in SDS-PAGE with apparent molecular mass of 14 and 15 kDa. Consequently, the high level of purification fold and yield suggest that both methods were appropriate for purification, but affinity was more specific because CPB gut enzyme was used as ligand.

PRODUCTIVE LONGEVITY DAUGHTERS OF SIRES UKRAINIAN BLACK-AND-WHITE DAIRY BREED

In pedigree farm of Cherkasy region, in the modern highly mechanized technologies of milk production, research on studying influence of sires’ heredity on the duration of use and lifetime productivity of their daughters was conducted. The research materials were withdrawn livestock of daughters of Ukrainian Black-and-White and Holstein sires in the amount of 784 head. Duration of lactation, milk yield, content and yield of milk fat for the entire lactation were recorded for each lactation. The following indicators were studied: lifetime, duration of economic use, lifetime milk yield, lifetime milk fat yield, average lifetime fat content in milk, average milk yield per day, average milk yield for a day of economic use and the number of used lactations. On assessing lifetime, the best were daughters of Ukrainian Black-and-White Dairy sires with indicators 3589 and 3303 days. A reliable difference in their favor in comparison with the average for the herd was 1351 and 1065 days (P < 0.001). Comparison of progeny of native sires and Holstein sires also showed significant predominance in lifetime of daughters in their favor, which ranged from 373 to 1841 days (P < 0.001), and duration of productive use – from 438 to 1815 days (P < 0.001). Variability in the number of used lactations varied widely from 1.7 to 6.1 units. In the ranking on the ground of number of used lactations the first and second were sires of domestic breeding – Fajans (6.1lact.) and Avans (5.2 lact.). Most daughters of Holstein sires were used less than the average for the herd. Highly reliable negative correlation between milk yield during the first lactation and the use duration indicators, the lack of correlation between the first lactation yield and lifetime yield obtained in our studies on experimental livestock of 784 head, gives grounds to assert that high milk yield during the first lactation leads to reduction in duration of use and does not always guarantee high figures of lifetime productivity. Milk yield for a day of economic use has a high positive correlation with yield in the first lactation (r = 0.438), lifetime milk yield (r = 0.325), lifetime milk fat yield (r = 0.283) and, especially, yield for a day of life (r = 0.701). With traits of lifetime, economic use duration and CEU, milk yield per day of life has slight negative correlation. Thus, according to figures of use duration and lifetime productivity for progeny of estimated sires of different origin, it is possible to make the generalization that improvement of Ukrainian dairy breeds should be based on the best genetic resources of sires of domestic breeding. When you use foreign breeding sires it is advisable to combine their breeding qualities with assessment of longevity. According to the research should make the following conclusions. The duration of use and lifetime productivity of Ukrainian Black-and-White Dairy cows in the breeding herd are determined by of sires’ individual heredity. High level of milk yield during the first lactation in estimated sires’ progeny does not guarantee an increase in traits of economic use and lifetime productivity. Progeny of domestic breeding bulls was better by traits of productive longevity than purebred progeny of Holstein sires.

A Bayesian decision model for drought management in rainfed wheat farms of North East Iran

Drought is a feature of climate that can occur in virtually all climates. Therefore, it is aninevitable global but site-specific phenomenon which requires tools to predict and strategies andoptions to cope with it. In this research, the ability and effectiveness of the Bayesian DecisionNetworks (BDNs) approach in decision-making and evaluating drought management options forrainfed wheat production in the eastern region of Golestan Province, Iran are demonstrated. Theresults revealed that during drought conditions, the Koohdasht cultivar had higher yield thanother cultivars of wheat. Two management scenarios have been specified for the forecastedperiod on the basis of wheat cultivars adopted in the region. The results of scenario analysiswith a BDN model indicate that the probability of low, medium and high yield levels in scenario2 (Koohdasht 70%, Zagros 20% and the other cultivars 10%) has a better status compared withscenario 1 (current condition). The paired t- test indicates that there is a significant differencebetween the two scenarios for wheat yield in low and medium states (P<0.05). Adoptingappropriate cultivars in the region with favourable yield and adaptability to drought conditionsproved to be an effective management action. The BDN approach implemented in this researchserves as a valuable tool to represent the system as a whole, to integrate outputs from modelsand expert judgment, to evaluate the outcomes necessary for decision-making and tocommunicate uncertainty of the parameters in the model.

Guava Waste to Sustain Guava (Psidium guajava) Agroecosystem: Nutrient "Balance" Concepts.

The Brazilian guava processing industry generates 5.5 M Mg guava waste year−1 that could be recycled sustainably in guava agro-ecosystems as slow-release fertilizer. Our objectives were to elaborate nutrient budgets and to diagnose soil, foliar, and fruit nutrient balances in guava orchards fertilized with guava waste. We hypothesized that (1) guava waste are balanced fertilizer sources that can sustain crop yield and soil nutrient stocks, and (2) guava agroecosystems remain productive within narrow ranges of nutrient balances. A 6-year experiment was conducted in 8-year old guava orchard applying 0–9–18–27–36 Mg ha−1 guava waste (dry mass basis) and the locally recommended mineral fertilization. Nutrient budgets were compiled as balance sheets. Foliar and fruit nutrient balances were computed as isometric log ratios to avoid data redundancy or resonance due to nutrient interactions and the closure to measurement unit. The N, P, and several other nutrients were applied in excess of crop removal while K was in deficit whatever the guava waste treatment. The foliar diagnostic accuracy reached 93% using isometric log ratios and knn classification, generating reliable foliar nutrient and concentration ranges at high yield level. The plant mined the soil K reserves without any significant effect on fruit yield and foliar nutrient balances involving K. High guava productivity can be reached at lower soil test K and P values than thought before. Parsimonious dosage of fresh guava waste should be supplemented with mineral K fertilizers to recycle guava waste sustainably in guava agroecosystems. Brazilian growers can benefit from this research by lowering soil test P and K threshold values to avoid over-fertilization and using fresh guava waste supplemented with mineral fertilizers, especially K. Because yield was negatively correlated with fruit acidity and Brix index, balanced plant nutrition and fertilization diagnosis will have to consider not only fruit yield targets but also fruit quality to meet requirements for guava processing.

Sivas’ta Tahıl Tarımı, Verimlilik Sorunları ve Çözüm Önerileri

Insufficient capital an technical sources of agricultural enterprises, old-ages and low educational levels of population dealing with agricultural activities, lack of technical stuff and resultant insufficiencies of extension services and adverse climate conditions experienced time to time all negatively influence cereal farming and productivity levels in Sivas province. Large fallow lands over monoculture cereal lands, insufficient certified seed utilization, improper soil tillage and seedbed preparation practices, delay of winter sowings or high summer sowing rates (especially in barley), insufficient chemical fertilizer uses because of high fertilizer costs, lack of scientific research on cereals and untimely weed control practices also significantly limit cereal yields. All these aforementioned theoretical and economical deficiencies should be eliminated to have high yield levels in cereal farming of Sivas province.

İşletmelerde Pamuk Üretim Tekniği ve Girdi Kullanım Durumu: Antalya İli Örneği

This study was aimed to examine the cotton production techniques and determined of input use in the cotton production. The primary data used in research was obtained from 94 cotton-growing farms by surveying method in the Antalya province. The data belonged to 2011 production period. In the research area 95.74% of agricultural farms made conventional farming. It was determined that cotton seed was used 2.43 kg per decares and 27.7% of farmers had soil analysis and 24.5% of them applied fertilizer according to the analyses. It was determined that the average fertilizer applications per decares were 24.9 kg nitrogen, 17.2 kg phosphorus, 8.2 kg potassium and 0.5 kg sulfur fertilizer. It was calculated that the average number of plant spraying 5.4, the number of irrigation 4.53 in the cotton cultivation. The application level of water-saving irrigation techniques of farmers was low(2.12% of farmers used drip and sprinkler irrigation system). Labor force was used as 53.95 hours and machine was calculated as 3.06 hours per decares. Mechanization of the cotton harvest increased. It was determined that 47.87% of farmers did not receive consultancy services; 22.34% of farmers were knowledgeable about the concept of integrated pest management and 41.5% of farmers were knowledgeable about good agricultural practices in the region. In order to increase the production of cotton in the region; new varieties which will be compatible to the region, higher levels of yield, resistant to disease and pests should be developed and farmers should be informed about technical applications by extension personnel.

Pengukuran Kepuasan Kerja Karyawan APLP &amp; A PT Semen Padang (PT X)

Thoughts on employee satisfaction arise because the company believes its employees have a high level of satisfaction will result in a better level of productivity, work more accurate, the fewer the number of absences and higher loyalty than employees with low satisfaction levels.Company's with good productivity will grow and increase revenue. PT Semen Padang has several subsidiaries and affiliates like PT X. PT X will measure employee satisfaction with the company's expectations are always making changes that sustainable about employee satisfaction because companies believe that employee satisfaction level of its high yield levels better productivity, work more accurate, the number of absences are fewer and loyalty higher than employees with low satisfaction levels. Companies with good productivity will experience growth as indicated by the increase in revenue, in line with the increase in the welfare of the employees. PT Semen Padang has several subsidiaries and affiliates PT X. PT Xwill measure employee satisfaction with the Company's expectations.

Initial horticultural performance of nine ‘Persian’ lime selections grafted onto Swingle citrumelo

‘Persian’ lime (PL) [Citrus latifolia (Yu. Tanaka) Tanaka] is an important species both for domestic fresh fruit consumption in Brazil as well as the export market, since the country is one of the largest producers in the world despite the fact that, in commercial plantations, it is still not uncommon to find trees with low productivity and high plant vigor of unknown origin. Selections of Persian lime ‘CNPMF–2000’, ‘CNPMF–2001’, ‘CNPMF–01’, ‘CNPMF–02’, ‘IAC–5’, ‘IAC–5.1’, ‘Bearss’, ‘Persian–58’, and ‘5059’, were therefore grafted onto Swingle citrumelo [C. paradisi Macfad. cv. Duncan × Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf.] rootstocks and evaluated in Cruz das Almas, Bahia, Brazil in a field experiment conducted in a completely randomized block design with five replications and two trees per plot. The biometric attributes (canopy height, diameter and volume), yield parameters (yield during the off-season harvest period, yield per plant, production efficiency), and fruit quality traits, were evaluated. The ‘CNPMF–2001’, ‘CNPMF–01’, ‘CNPMF–02’, ‘IAC–5’, and ‘Bearss’ selections had 5-11 % shorter trees than the other cultivars. ‘CNPMF–01’, ‘CNPMF–02’, ‘Persian–58’, and ‘5059’ presented higher yield efficiency values, between 3.1-3.4 kg m−3, and higher yield levels during the off-season harvest periods. The ‘Bearss’, ‘Persian–58’, ‘CNPMF–2000’, ‘IAC–5.1’ and ‘5059’ selections had more acid fruits and the latter three, smaller fruits. Based on their horticultural performance up to eight years of age, ‘CNPMF–01’, ‘CNPMF–02’, ‘Persian–58’ and ‘5059’ selections were the most promising varieties of Persian lime.

Potential Yield Increase of Hybrid Rice at Five Locations in Southern China.

BackgroundA number of field studies have demonstrated that the yield potential of hybrid rice cultivars is higher than that of inbred cultivars, although the magnitude of difference between hybrid and inbred cultivars at different yield levels has not been described. The objective of this study is to compare the yield increase potential at different yield levels between hybrid and conventional rice. Ten field experiments were conducted at five locations in southern China in 2012 and 2013. At each location, two hybrid and two inbred cultivars were grown at three N levels: high (225 kg/hm2), moderate (161–191 kg/hm2) and the control, zero N (0 kg/hm2).ResultsHybrid rice yielded approximately 8 % more grain than did inbred cultivars in Huaiji, Binyang and Haikou; approximately 7 % more in Changsha; and approximately 19 % more in Xingyi. The high grain yields observed for hybrid rice cultivars were attributed to high grain weight and biomass accumulation at maturity. On average, rice yields were approximately 6.0–7.5 t ha−1 (medium yield) in Huaiji, Binyang and Haikou; approximately 9.0 t ha−1 in Changsha (high yield); and approximately 12.0 t ha−1 (super high yield) in Xingyi. The yield gaps among Huaiji, Binyang and Haikou and Changsha were attributed to the differences in spikelets m−2 and biomass production, whereas the yield gap between Changsha and Xingyi was caused by the differences in grain-filling percentage, grain weight and harvest index. The differences in biomass production among sites were primarily due to variation in crop growth rate induced by varied temperatures and accumulative solar radiation.ConclusionsThe yield superiority of hybrid rice was relatively small in comparison with that of inbred cultivars at medium and high yield levels, but the difference was large at super high yield levels. Improving rice yields from medium to high should focus on spikelets m−2 and biomass, whereas further improvement to super high level should emphasize on grain-filling percentage, grain weight and harvest index. Favorable environmental conditions are essential for high yields in hybrid rice.

Enantiospecific Alkynylation of Alkylboronic Esters

AbstractEnantioenriched secondary and tertiary alkyl pinacolboronic esters undergo enantiospecific deborylative alkynylation through a Zweifel‐type alkenylation followed by a 1,2‐elimination reaction. The process involves use of α‐lithio vinyl bromide or vinyl carbamate species, for which application to Zweifel‐type reactions has not previously been explored. The resulting functionalized 1,1‐disubstituted alkenes undergo facile base‐mediated elimination to generate terminal alkyne products in high yield and excellent levels of enantiospecificity over a wide range of pinacolboronic ester substrates. Furthermore, along with terminal alkynes, internal and silyl‐protected alkynes can be formed by simply introducing a suitable carbon‐ or silicon‐based electrophile after the base‐mediated 1,2‐elimination reaction.

Enantiospecific Alkynylation of Alkylboronic Esters.

Enantioenriched secondary and tertiary alkyl pinacolboronic esters undergo enantiospecific deborylative alkynylation through a Zweifel‐type alkenylation followed by a 1,2‐elimination reaction. The process involves use of α‐lithio vinyl bromide or vinyl carbamate species, for which application to Zweifel‐type reactions has not previously been explored. The resulting functionalized 1,1‐disubstituted alkenes undergo facile base‐mediated elimination to generate terminal alkyne products in high yield and excellent levels of enantiospecificity over a wide range of pinacolboronic ester substrates. Furthermore, along with terminal alkynes, internal and silyl‐protected alkynes can be formed by simply introducing a suitable carbon‐ or silicon‐based electrophile after the base‐mediated 1,2‐elimination reaction.

INITIAL SPROUT GROWTH OF POTATO SEED MINITUBERS UNDER SALT STRESS

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is a major crop worldwide and the tuber yield of currently used cultivars is strongly reduced at high soil salt levels. The effects of salt stress on early sprout growth of potato plants were investigated using the cultivar Ágata. Potato seed minitubers were planted in 0.4 L pots filled with commercial substrate (Bioplant®), and maintained under greenhouse conditions. A completely randomized design with five treatments and five replications was used. Three days after sprouting, potato plants were exposed to five salinity levels [0 (control), 25, 50, 75 and 100 mmol L–1 of NaCl] for 28 days. Results showed that the exposure of plants to 100 mmol L–1 NaCl reduced the shoot height (72%), shoot dry matter (76%) and root dry matter (75%) of potato plants compared to the NaCl-free control. The length of longest roots was not affected by salinity levels, indicating that inhibition of shoot growth is more severe that of the root. The exposure to high salt concentrations severely restricted the early sprout growth of potato plants. Results of this study stated that salt-stress is a constraint on potato production, and the use of cultivars tolerant to salt stress can be a strategy to achieve high levels of potato tuber yield under salinity conditions.

Effects of Sowing Date, Density and Nitrogen Application Amount on Nitrogen Utilization Rate of Guangmingmai 1 Grown in Rice-Wheat System

Improvement of utilization rate of nitrogen fertilizer (NUR) is one of research focuses in wheat. In a two-year field experiment, the NUR of wheat variety Guangmingmai 1 in the wheat-rice rotation system in response to sowing date (S), density (D), and nitrogen application rate (N) was studied using a mathematical model based on quadratic regression rotation-orthogonal combination design. Among the three factors, nitrogen application rate had the greatest effects on NUR, followed by sowing date and density. Several S+D+N combinations resulted in high yield and high NUR under the experimental conditions. The highest yield level (6800-7200 kg ha -1 ) was obtained in the combination of S between October 28 and November 2, D between 1.6 and 1.8 million plants per hectare, and N at 200 kg ha -1 . Simultaneously, the NUR was higher than 42.0% (the maximum was 44.8%) with a credibility larger than 95%. At the yield level of 6200-7000 kg ha -1 and NUR higher than 41.0%, the optimal S, D and N were 21-27 October, 1.2-1.5 million plants per hectare and 190-225 kg ha -1 , respectively. At the yield level of 5900-7250 kg ha -1 and NUR higher than 39.0%, the agronomic practices were recommended to be S between November 3 and November 11, D be- tween 2.1 and 2.4 million plants per hectare, and N between 190 and 210 kg ha -1 .

Towards intra-population improvement of alfalfa yield and persistence

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is the most important forage crop in the world, regarding growing area and economic value, because of its high yield level, good persistence, high protein content and energy value. In alfalfa, concept of intra-population breeding means direct selection for yield, through recurrent phenotypic selection using some form of progeny testing. Significant differences between genotypes were found for green forage and dry matter yields. The observed variation for both yield traits was much higher at population level than for the selected plants that will form new improved population. In the next steps of breeding process selected plants will be intercrossed in isolation to develop a new, improved population. Alfalfa breeding programs should focus on yield per se, with the use of old and new knowledge on the genetic control of yield and with adaptation of existing or developing new breeding procedure.

Effects of the nutrient supply and sowing time on the yield and the phytopathological traits of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus var. napus f. biennis L.) on chernozem soil

We have studied the fertilizer response of oilseed rape on the chernozem soil in Eastern Hungary in a three-year experiment (years of 2009/2010, 2010/2011, 2011/2012) in two sowing times (end of August, middle of September). Our research results proved that oilseed rape has high fertilizer (N+PK) demand. In the experiments, N = 210 kg ha-1 +PK proved to be the optimal fertilizer dose. The yield increasing effect of fertilization was 800 to 1300 kg ha-1, depending on the cropyear. The maximum yield (5000 kg ha-1) was obtained in the cropyear of the less infection. The excellent natural nutrient providing ability of chernozem soil was confirmed by the high yield level (3000-4200 kg ha-1) of the control treatment (N = 0 kg ha-1 +PK). According to our studies, as an effect of the increasing N doses, the specific fertilization yield surplus of oilseed rape declined (from 19-27 kg/1 kg NPK to 11-12 kg/1 kg NPK). On the other hand, fertilization improved the water utilization efficiency (WUE) of oilseed rape in the experimental years (from 4-8 kg/1 mm precipitation + irrigation water to 11-14 kg/1 mm precipitation + irrigation water). The results of our studies confirmed that the hybrid rape had of excellent adaptation to the sowing time; due to this fact, the yield decrease was minimal (0-270 kg ha-1) in the middle September sowing time compared to the late August one. According to the results of the Pearson’s correlation analysis, strong correlation (0.6*-0.9**) was found between the spring precipitation and temperature and the most important diseases (Sclerotinia, Alternaria, Peronospora, Phoma) of oilseed rape.

Glutathione production by recombinant Escherichia coli expressing bifunctional glutathione synthetase.

Glutathione (GSH) is an important bioactive substance applied widely in pharmaceutical and food industries. Due to the strong product inhibition in the GSH biosynthetic pathway, high levels of intracellular content, yield and productivity of GSH are difficult to achieve. Recently, a novel bifunctional GSH synthetase was identified to be less sensitive to GSH. A recombinant Escherichia coli strain expressing gshF encoding the bifunctional glutathione synthetase of Streptococcus thermophilus was constructed for GSH production. In this study, efficient GSH production using this engineered strain was investigated. The cultivation process was optimized by controlling dissolved oxygen (DO), amino acid addition and glucose feeding. 36.8mM (11.3g/L) GSH were formed at a productivity of 2.06mM/h when the amino acid precursors (75mM each) were added and glucose was supplied as the sole carbon and energy source.

Modifying Winter Wheat Sowing Date as an Adaptation to Climate Change on the Loess Plateau

Adopting convenient strategies to cope with climate change is necessary for farmers. In this study, we modified winter wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) sowing date employing the root zone water quality model (RZWQM2) on the semiarid Loess Plateau of China, and mainly aimed to (i) investigate how the adapted sowing date affects winter wheat production and water use efficiency (WUE) under global warming and (ii) explore the optimal sowing date under different precipitation patterns (i.e., wet, medium, and dry years). Results showed that the RZWQM2 model could efficiently simulate crop development, water movement, and final crop yields on the Loess Plateau. The properly delayed sowing date efficiently maintained wheat yield, reduced evapotranspiration, increased WUE, and minimized the decreasing rate of wheat yield and WUE under global warming from the 1950s. To maintain a high level of yield under global warming, the wheat sowing date could be delayed by 10 to 20 d in the wet and medium years, and by 20 to 25 d in the dry year compared with the current sowing date. Therefore, a delayed sowing date could be used on the Loess Plateau and even similar semiarid environments in the world to cope with climate change for farmers.