High Impedance Contrast Research Articles

Holes Effects in Plane Periodic Multilayered Viscoelastic Media

This work deals with the study of the reflection and transmission properties of plane periodic structures composed of N periods (1 ≤ N ≤ 3) in the MHz frequency range. The period consists of two bounded plates presenting a high acoustic impedance contrast one of which is in aluminum, the other is in polyethylene. The longitudinal and transversal attenuations are considered in polyethylene and neglected in aluminum. We take into account the case of emerging holes in the polyethylene layer. Simulations are based on the stiffness matrix method (SMM) developed by Rokhlin. When attenuation is considered in polyethylene, the reflection coefficients are different depending on the insonification side. The comparison of results without or with holes configurations are performed and showed that throughout holes allow the rapid observation of forbidden bands. The attenuation of the whole multilayer is also determined.

Study of the resonances of periodic plane media immersed in water: Theory and experiment

The paper deals with the study of the resonances of 1D periodic media composed of N elementary cells formed with two perfectly bonded layers which exhibit a high acoustic impedance contrast. In the case of a periodic bilayer structure constituted of a fluid layer and an elastic plate, it was shown in previous theoretical works that additional modes appear compared to those of a single plate. These are called structure modes. At low frequency, the so-called vertical modes are found. Approximate expressions of their cut-off frequencies are given and their numerical values match with the exact ones. At high frequency, the Lamb type modes are degenerated and modes in the fluid layers are also observed. Preliminary experimental results have already proved the existence of such phenomena for one and two periods. In our work, an experimental validation has been performed in the case of N periods made with a glass isotropic elastic plate and a water fluid layer, where the number N ranges from two to five. A good agreement is shown compared to theoretical works.

AN EFFICIENT AND NUMERICALLY STABLE COUPLED-MODE SOLUTION FOR RANGE-DEPENDENT PROPAGATION

An efficient and numerically stable coupled-mode solution is presented for acoustic propagation in a range-dependent waveguide. This model is numerically stable due to the appropriately normalized range solutions introduced in the formulation. In addition, by combining a forward marching and a backward marching, this model provides accurate solutions for range-dependent waveguides characterized by large bottom slope angles and/or high impedance contrast. Besides high accuracy, this two-way solution also provides high efficiency, which is achieved by applying the single-scatter approximation. Numerical examples are also provided to demonstrate the stability, accuracy, and efficiency of this model.

Simulation of Seismic-Wave Propagation through Geometrically Complex Basins: The Dead Sea Basin

Abstract The Dead Sea Transform (DST) is the source for some of the largest earthquakes in the eastern Mediterranean. The seismic hazard presented by the DST threatens the Israeli, Palestinian, and Jordanian populations alike. Several deep and structurally complex sedimentary basins are associated with the DST. These basins are up to 10 km deep and typically bounded by active fault zones. The low seismicity of the DST, the sparse seismic network, and limited coverage of sedimentary basins result in a critical knowledge gap. Therefore, it is necessary to complement the limited instrumental data with synthetic data based on computational modeling, in order to study the effects of earthquake ground motion in these sedimentary basins. In this research we performed a 2D ground‐motion analysis in the Dead Sea Basin (DSB) using a finite‐difference code. Cross sections transecting the DSB were compiled for wave propagation simulations. Results indicate a complex pattern of ground‐motion amplification affected by the geometric features in the basin. To distinguish between the individual contributions of each geometrical feature in the basin, we developed a semiquantitative decomposition approach. This approach enabled us to interpret the DSB results as follows: (1) Ground‐motion amplification as a result of resonance occurs basin‐wide due to a high impedance contrast at the base of the uppermost layer; (2) Steep faults generate a strong edge‐effect that further amplifies ground motions; (3) Sub‐basins cause geometrical focusing that may significantly amplify ground motions; and (4) Salt diapirs diverge seismic energy and cause a decrease in ground‐motion amplitude.

Determination of dipping contacts using electrical resistivity tomography

Determination of dipping contacts using electrical resistivity tomographyGenerally, all electrode arrays are able to delineate the contact of two lithostratigraphic units especially with very high resistivity contrast. However, the image resolution for the location of vertical and dipping structures is different. The responses of dipole-dipole (DD), Wenner alpha (WA), Schlumberger (SCH) and combined pole-dipole (PD) arrays have been computed using the finite difference method. Comparison of the responses indicates that: (1) The dipole-dipole array usually gives the best resolution and is the most detailed method especially for the detection of vertical structures. This array has shown the best resolution to recognize the geometrical characterisation of the fault. (2) The pole-dipole has shown the second best result in our test. The PD is an effective method for detection of vertical structures with a high depth range, but the deepest parts are deformed. (3) Wenner alpha shows a low resolution, inconvenient for detailed investigation of dip structures. (4) The Schlumberger array gives a good and sharp resolution to assess the contact between two lithological units but gives poor result for imaging geometry of dipping contact.

Combined geophysical methods for detecting soil thickness distribution on a weathered granitic hillslope

The usefulness of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) as a highly accurate method for determining the soil thickness distribution on hillslopes was validated by combining intensive measurements using invasive methods, i.e., cone penetration testing and boreholes, with ERI in three granitic watersheds. Areas of high electrical resistivity (ρ) contrast reflecting soil–bedrock interfaces were found in all three study watersheds. However, ρ values of soil and weathered granite just below the soil mantle varied over a relatively wide range at each site, as well as considerably from site to site. The patterns of low–high contrast in ρ profiles, reflecting the soil–bedrock interface, also differed from site to site despite similarly dry conditions. Differences in the water retention characteristics of soil and weathered granitic bedrock, as found by a previous study of bedrock hydrological properties, may have been a major factor in the observed subsurface ρ variations. The ERI method, with electrode spacing of 0.5 to 2.0m, was successful in determining soil thickness distributions ranging from about 0.5 to 3m depth based on its ability to detect high contrast in ρ in the subsurface zone. Closer electrode spacings are expected to more sensitively reveal the distribution of ground material properties and thus more accurately replicate the soil–bedrock interface. ERI failed to clearly identify the soil–bedrock interface at some points along our measurement lines because of local intermediate materials with different properties such as unconsolidated soil and clayey intermediation just below the soil–bedrock interface. Two types of seismic survey (SS) techniques were also used, combining seismic refraction (SR) and the surface wave method (SWM) with the ERI method in a granitic watershed to compare ERI with other geophysical methods. The profile of S-wave velocity (Vs) by SWM also reasonably duplicated the soil–bedrock interface; the Vs profile showed larger variation in lateral direction and corresponded to the soil thickness distribution better than the P-wave velocity (Vp) profile by SR. The combined use of ERI and SWM may be more effective in detecting the soil–bedrock interface because each method compensates for the deficiencies of the other method.

Active seismic and passive microtremor HVSR for assessing site effects in Jammu city, NW Himalaya, India—A case study

Abstract 1-D shear wave velocity structure is important for site effect studies and geotechnical engineering, but it is quite difficult and expensive to derive from the conventional geophysical techniques. Active (MASW) and passive (microtremors, HVSR) methods were conducted at 30 sites in the frontal part of the Himalaya which is characterized by soft sediments and strong seismological effects. Shear wave velocity (Vs) in the range of ~ 238 m/s to ~ 450 m/s has been obtained from 30 m thick layer of quaternary sediments overlying Lower Miocene bed rock (Upper Siwalik Conglomerate) in Jammu city, NW Himalaya. The shear wave velocity (Vs) along with seismic input motion of Chamoli earthquake (mb 6.8) has been used to obtain site response spectrum. The response spectrum suggests five to seven times increase in peak ground acceleration for single or two storey buildings and by eight to twelve times increase in amplification ratio with respect to input ground motion. The amplification spectrum shows peak amplification of ~ 2 Hz–~ 3 Hz in the central part and ~ 1.75 Hz–2 Hz in the northern, southwestern and southeastern parts of the city. The advantage of microtremor HVSR is that it yields direct estimate of the fundamental frequency which is found to vary from ~ 1 Hz to ~ 3 Hz for same sites. Further, the 1-D velocity models obtained from ModelHVSR Matlab routine have been compared with the soil models prepared by derived using MASW. The comparison shows correlation between soil models for sites having high shallow impedance contrast between the overlying sediments and very stiff material (bedrock) underneath as than sites having less impedance contrast.

Integrated geophysical profiles and H/V microtremor measurements for subsoil characterization

ABSTRACTMapping bedrock structure beneath overburden is crucial for understanding geological and hydrogeological processes. Acquiring this information is generally done using well drilling or geophysical surveys; but these studies are expensive and require large periods of acquisition and processing time. In addition, geophysical data acquisition can be logistically challenging in urban zones with limited available areas for instrumentation deployment.Under favourable conditions (1D structure and high acoustic impedance contrast) the H/V microtremor technique can provide estimates of bedrock depth. This technique is used to obtain the soil resonance frequency in seismic microzonation studies. It is based on the computation of the horizontal to vertical spectral ratio of microtremor recordings acquired at a single station. The soil resonance frequency is related to soil shear‐wave velocity and thickness.Here we investigate the capability of combining microtremor and traditional exploration geophysical techniques (electrical resistivity and seismic tomography) to obtain an empirical relationship relating soil resonance frequency and overburden thickness. Subsequently we propose to extend microtremor measurements to adjacent areas that have not been covered by geophysical surveys.This methodology has been applied at a test site located in a granitic environment where alluvial/colluvial sediments cover the granite weathering profile. This area is characterized by urban development and sectors having rugged topography. A priori, this area has suitable conditions to apply the H/V microtremor technique. Overburden thickness has been estimated to range between 20–50 m. The proposed methodology has been validated at the test site, encouraging us to apply the H/V method as an exploration tool in similar geological environments.

Field test to compare 3D imaging capabilities of three arrays in a site with high resistivity contrast regions

The applicability of three kinds of electrode configurations used to delineate a buried horizontal pipe was studied. A 3D resistivity imaging survey was carried out along eight parallel lines using pole-pole, pole-dipole, and dipole-dipole arrays with 1m minimum electrode spacings. Roll-along measurements were carried out to cover a rectangular grid. The 2D and 3D least squares algorithms based on the robust inversion method were used in the inversion of the apparent resistivity data sets. The 2D inversion of data sets could not delineate the orientation and dimension of the subsurface anomalies clearly. To obtain more accurate results, a 3D joint inversion of the pole-pole and pole-dipole data sets was performed, as well as of pole-pole and dipole-dipole data sets. In this case, both horizontal and vertical dimensions of subsurface structures were resolved. The resulting model obtained from each array was compared to those of joint inversion method. The result showed that the horizontal resolution does not improve so much as that in the vertical direction when joint inversion is applied.

2D resistivity inversion of 1D electrical-sounding measurements in deltaic complex geology: application to the delta Wadi El-Arish, Northern Sinai, Egypt

This study is an application of the 2D resistivity inversion of Schlumberger electrical sounding. The 2D resistivity inversion was performed using a code based on the finite-element technique and regularization method. Twenty-nine electrical soundings collected in the delta of Wadi El-Arish, Northern Sinai, were used as a case study. The main objective is to compare the 1D and 2D inversion results of the subsurface resistivity distribution in areas where the lateral resistivity variation cannot be neglected. The examination of the resulting 2D, 1D resistivity models and geological cross-section built from borehole information approximately at the same location showed a significant reliability of 2D models. Some subsurface geological and hydrogeological features could be interpreted such as the identification of clay lenses, potentiometric surface of the quaternary aquifer, potentiometric depression due to over-pumping, the high resistivity contrast due to lateral facies change, and basin-like structural features.

Advances and problems in understanding the seismic response of potentially unstable slopes

The influence of site effects on landslide triggering during earthquakes has been inferred in several studies, but its evaluation is made difficult by the complexity of factors controlling the dynamic response of potentially unstable slopes and also by the lack of local ground motion instrumental observations. This work explores this problem and reports new findings based on an ongoing long term accelerometric monitoring conducted on a landslide-prone test area in the Apennine Mountains, Italy, where the presence of site effects enhancing seismic susceptibility of local slopes has been invoked on the basis of historic accounts of landsliding triggered at large epicentral distance. The recordings relative to low-to-moderate magnitude earthquakes showed significant amplifications affecting hillslope portions covered by thick (> 5 m) colluvia and pronounced amplification maxima oriented along the local maximum slope direction on a recent deep-seated landslide. While the amplifications seem most likely linked to high impedance contrast between surface materials and underlying substratum, the causes of directivity are less clear. The case of the monitored test site together with evidence of site response directivity identified on other hillslopes, suggest that the directivity phenomena can result from a combination of topographic, lithological and structural factors that act together to re-distribute shaking energy, focusing it on site-specific directions. Thus, it is difficult to single out the critical factors controlling such phenomena and no general criterion for the identification of sites affected by directivity is proposed here. Nevertheless, the presence and orientation of site response directivity can be revealed through reconnaissance techniques by using recordings of seismic weak motion and/or ambient microtremors, and calculating azimuthal variation of shaking energy and horizontal-to-vertical ground motion spectral ratios. A comparison with the recordings obtained during the recent M W = 6.3 earthquake that hit the Abruzzo region in April 2009 demonstrated that analysis relying on data from low energy events can furnish valid indications for slope behaviour also under stronger shaking, provided the data are well differentiated in terms of distance, azimuth and source characteristics. Furthermore, the comparative analysis of the Abruzzo earthquake recordings at a landslide and reference sites showed that directivity properties of strong shaking had been correctly anticipated using earlier weak motion observations. However, under the complex slope conditions the identification of resonance frequencies from horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios estimated from weak-motion accelerometric recordings does not seem reliable, and better results have been obtained by velocimetric microtremor recordings.

High-resolution seismic imaging of theMw5.7, 2002 Molise, southern Italy, earthquake area: Evidence of deep fault reactivation

[1] We investigate the seismic structure of the Mw5.7, 2002 Molise earthquake area in order to understand the role of E–W trending strike-slip faults in the tectonics of the southern Apennines. We apply an innovative seismic migration technique to a high quality data set of earthquakes recorded at a dense local network. SP-converted waves are migrated in depth to image the high impedance contrast of the Apulian Platform top buried under the Apennines allochthonous cover. The continuity of the migrated seismic horizon is broken by vertical steps that we systematically picked along 200 cross sections. The best location points of these structures define two main tectonic features. The first one is related to NW–SE oriented normal faults and is consistent with the SW flexure of the foreland lithosphere beneath the orogenic belt. The second one indicates that shallow E–W oriented trans-tensional faults are concentrated directly above the deeper (10–20 km) strike-slip fault, delineating the geometry of a negative flower-type structure. This fault system delimits a depressed sector of the Apulian Platform, whose geometry is consistent with a pull-apart basin inherited from a previous left-lateral strike-slip tectonic regime. The buried structure is analogous to those outcropping in the Apulian foreland and in the Adriatic offshore, to the east. This correlation brings new support to the hypothesis of a regional E–W trending shear zone cutting the Adria plate and suggests that other earthquakes could occur on this or on parallel E–W trending strike-slip faults.

Measurement and modeling of seabed particle motion using buried vector sensors

A technique was developed to measure the speed of sound in marine sediments at discrete frequencies from 0.6 to 3 kHz by transmitting pulses from acoustic projectors within the water column and measuring the pressure and acceleration components of the acoustic field on vector sensors buried in the seabed. The burial depth and orientation of the vector sensors was determined by analyzing the amplitude and phase response of the acceleration signals to transmissions from three orthogonal directions, using two acoustic projectors also buried in the seabed and a third in the water column directly above the buried receivers. To determine the properties of the seabed, a sequence of transmitted pulses was repeated from ten different grazing angles, spanning from well above to near the nominal critical angle. Due to the interference of refracted and diffracted (mainly evanescent) components of the acoustic field that penetrate the seabed, the particle motion can be elliptical rather than rectilinear and is not necessarily aligned with the geometric ray path (i.e., according to Snell's law). A model was developed to quantify the effect of this interference. It revealed that the parameterization of the seabed as a sand half-space was incapable of explaining the frequency-dependent arrival angles measured by the vector sensors. Further modeling using a computer code for seismoacoustic propagation in horizontally stratified waveguides revealed that the measurement technique is very sensitive to the presence of thin layers with a high-impedance contrast. This modeling suggests that the presence of a thin muddy layer, 0.05-0.2 m thick within the top 1 m of the sediment, is dominating the complicated angular response of the vector sensors.

Using artificial neural networks to invert 2D DC resistivity imaging data for high resistivity contrast regions: A MATLAB application

MATLAB is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements and functions. MATLAB has several useful toolboxes to solve complex problems in various fields of science, such as geophysics. In geophysics, the inversion of 2D DC resistivity imaging data is complex due to its non-linearity, especially for high resistivity contrast regions. In this paper, we investigate the applicability of MATLAB to design, train and test a newly developed artificial neural network in inverting 2D DC resistivity imaging data. We used resilient propagation to train the network. The model used to produce synthetic data is a homogeneous medium of 100 Ω m resistivity with an embedded anomalous body of 1000 Ω m. The location of the anomalous body was moved to different positions within the homogeneous model mesh elements. The synthetic data were generated using a finite element forward modeling code by means of the RES2DMOD. The network was trained using 21 datasets and tested on another 16 synthetic datasets, as well as on real field data. In field data acquisition, the cable covers 120 m between the first and the last take-out, with a 3 m x-spacing. Three different electrode spacings were measured, which gave a dataset of 330 data points. The interpreted result shows that the trained network was able to invert 2D electrical resistivity imaging data obtained by a Wenner–Schlumberger configuration rapidly and accurately.

Microtremor study of site effects and soil-structure resonance in the city of Ljubljana (central Slovenia)

The city of Ljubljana is located in one of the three areas with the highest seismic hazard in Slovenia, and it is also the most densely populated. Site effects due to Quaternary sediments, which fill the up to 200 m-deep basin, are characteristic of the whole city area, but they can be especially strong in the southern part of Ljubljana, which is built on very soft lacustrine deposits. Existing microzonation studies of the city are inadequate, since there is a lack of borehole, geophysical and earthquake data. The microtremor horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) method was therefore applied to a 200 m dense grid of free-field measurements over an area of 45 km2 (1,223 measuring points) in order to assess the fundamental frequency of the sediments. The main difficulties in microtremor measurement arose from high levels of traffic and industrial noise, and from underground structures. Experimental conditions which can influence data quality, such as strong wind and water saturation of soil, were analysed. Very clear HVSR peaks were obtained in the entire southern part of the city, whereas in the northern part the site response is in general lower due to lower impedance contrast of gravel with the bedrock. The iso-frequency map of sediments shows a distribution in the range of 0.9–10 Hz. In the southern part of Ljubljana, sediment frequency correlates well with the thickness of soft sediments known from geophysical investigations and sparse drilling. Average amplitude of the HVSR peaks is considerably higher in the southern part (6.7 ± 2.4) than in the northern part (4.0 ± 2.0) of the city, indicating a high impedance contrast of lacustrine sediments with the bedrock. Microtremor measurements were also performed inside 122 buildings of various heights. We focused on important public buildings and selected blocks of flats and houses. To assess the longitudinal and transverse fundamental frequencies of each building, amplitude spectra and the spectral ratio between the upper floor and the basement were analysed for both directions. When one of these frequencies is close to a nearby free-field fundamental frequency, a potential soil-structure resonance is present. This was found in 12 of the measured buildings. Three of them are tall residential buildings (from 10 to 15 floors) with a fundamental frequency of 2–3 Hz, and nine of them are low-rise buildings (from 3 to 5 floors) with a fundamental frequency ranging from 3 to 4.5 Hz. Using the relationship between fundamental frequency and height, the typical height of buildings that might cause soil-structure resonance can be estimated at a given sediment frequency obtained from free-field measurements.

Ultrasonic vibrometer for tissue characterization

Ultrasonic vibrometers are well suited to a variety of tissue‐characterization tasks because they exploit the lateral resolution and depth of field available with diagnostic ultrasound systems for measurements at lower frequencies. In the past, ultrasonic vibrometers have been used to measure the motion of surfaces with high impedance contrast to their surroundings (otoliths, swim bladders, and lung tissue). New ultrasonic vibrometry techniques have been developed and tested that permit calibrated real‐time (amplitude and phase) transduction of sub‐nanometer‐amplitude vibrations at audio frequencies. These can be configured using either analog or digital demodulation for carrier signals up to 10 MHz. In the fully digital configuration, the vibrometer offers better displacement resolution than has been previously reported for analog systems. It also has the capability to simultaneously distinguish between the displacements of multiple discrete vibrating scatterers or regions within a continuum of scatterers by exploiting a multi‐sine carrier signal. Individual vibrating targets are separated by pulse compression and windowing. This reduces the problem of carrier drop‐out or speckle noise that occurs when multiple reflections destructively interfere at the receiver of a narrow‐band signal. The technique should permit the vibrometer a depth resolution comparable a typical pulse‐echo ultrasound system. [Work supported by ONR.]

Ultrasonic Wave Reflection Approach to Evaluation of Fresh Concrete Friction

The friction of fresh concrete and granular materials against a metallic plate was investigated using ultrasonic wave reflection. Two complementary experimental devices, one a global device using a tribometer, the other a device based on an ultrasonic reflectometer giving a local approach at the formwork/fresh concrete interface. This approach is based on the evaluation of the density variation of the interface between the metallic wall and the material during the casting process. The authors propose a method to maintain a high impedance contrast by using a water layer interleaved between the transducer and the studied material. Good agreement between the ultrasonic parameter and the friction parameter was observed.

H/V ratio: a tool for site effects evaluation. Results from 1-D noise simulations

SUMMARY Ambient vibration techniques such as the H/V method may have the potential to significantly contribute to site effect evaluation, particularly in urban areas. Previous studies interpret the so-called Nakamura’s technique in relation to the ellipticity ratio of Rayleigh waves, which, for a high enough impedance contrast, exhibits a pronounced peak close to the fundamental S-wave resonance frequency. Within the European SESAME project (Site EffectS assessment using AMbient Excitations) this interpretation has been tested through noise numerical simulation under well-controlled conditions in terms of source type and distribution and propagation structure. We will present simulations for a simple realistic site (one sedimentary layer over bedrock) characterized by a rather high impedance contrast and low quality factor. Careful H/V and array analysis on these noise synthetics allow an in-depth investigation of the link between H/V ratio peaks and the noise wavefield composition for the soil model considered here: (1) when sources are near (4 to 50 times the layer thickness) and surficial, H/V curves exhibit one single peak, while the array analysis shows that the wavefield is dominated by Rayleigh waves; (2) when sources are distant (more than 50 times the layer thickness) and located inside the sedimentary layer, two peaks show up on the H/V curve, while the array analysis indicates both Rayleigh waves and strong S head waves; the first peak is due to both fundamental Rayleigh waves and resonance of head S waves, the second is only due to the resonance of head S waves; (3) when sources are deep (located inside the bedrock), whatever their distance, H/V ratio exhibit peaks at the fundamental and harmonic resonance frequencies, while array analyses indicate only non-dispersive body waves; the H/V is thus simply due to multiple reflections of S waves within the layer. Therefore, considering that experimental H/V ratio (i.e. derived from actual noise measured in the field) exhibit in most cases only one peak, we conclude that H/V ratio is (1) mainly controlled by local surface sources, (2) mainly due to the ellipticity of the fundamental Rayleigh waves. Then the amplitude of H/V peak is not able to give a good estimate of site amplification factor.

A review of the resistivity structure of the Karoo Supergroup, South Africa, with emphasis on the dolerites: A study in anisotropy

The resistivity structure of the Karoo Basin has been determined by an extensive programme of some 280 deep electrical soundings (maximum current electrode spacing = 40 km). The very conductive carbon and pyrite- rich Whitehill Formation acts as an electrical basement to deep soundings where it is well developed. Beyond its limit in the east, the electrical basement consists of granites and metamorphic rocks and is highly resistive. Notwithstanding an appreciable difference in resistivity between the sandstone and mudstone components, the sandstones are neither sufficiently massive nor continuous to be detected separately in sounding curves. Exceptions are a few, thick, massive arenaceous turbidite fans occurring under an appreciable cover in the downwarped Karoo Trough, straddling the Lower Beaufort and Upper Ecca Subgroups at the southern extremity of the basin. The average resistivity of the sedimentary pile above the Whitehill Formation increases from north to south by more than an order of magnitude substantiating geological evidence of a sympathetic increase in diagenesis and metamorphosis. The Karoo Supergroup comprises one of the rare instances of a sedimentary basin where dolerite intrusions occur interbedded with sediments. The very high resistivity contrast between the resistive dolerite and the conductive sediment, results in an exceptionally high degree of electrical anisotropy. This feature has provided a unique opportunity to study the configuration of the network of dolerite intrusions in the sedimentary succession but simultaneously has often seriously restricted the depth of investigation. Previous geological investigations have demonstrated a tri-zonal vertical variation in intrusive style. The resistivity study has shown that elements in each of these zones have their own specific geophysical signature. The largest portion of the basal zone 3 with its flat lying dolerite sills of great lateral extent is confined to well-laminated, homogeneous shales with a high degree of anisotropy in the Lower Ecca Subgroup and is characterized by a low transverse resistance on sounding curves corresponding to a concomitant low content of dolerite. The onset of zone 2, which coincides with the appearance of the first sandstones in the Waterford Formation, is accompanied by a dramatic increase in transverse resistance and hence the amount of dolerite. This dolerite-rich zone, which continues through the Beaufort Group and partially into the higher Formations is characterised by a multitude of basin structures. The variation in structure of the network of dolerites correlates with that of the nexus of lenticular sandstones intercalated with shales and mudstones. Detailed investigations, such as the one in the De Aar area, show that the average percentage of dolerite in the dolerite bearing layer of zone 2 is 45% with a high of 85% and a low of about 10%. Regionally, zone 2 thins to the south but thickens to the east by a factor of at least 5, at the expense of zone 3. The thickening is associated with a lateral increase in the amount of dolerite. Towards the upper portion of zone 2 there is a lower concentration of intrusions and a trend towards smaller basin structures in the Molteno, Elliot and Clarens Formations. Arguably, the most important contribution of the resistivity soundings is the conclusive finding that in the uppermost zone 1, which extends from the surface to a depth of about 700 m, the dominant style of intrusion is that of steeply dipping sheets and vertical dykes and that the zone is especially dolerite-poor with the amount of dolerite only making up about 0.5% or less of the sediments. The nature of zone 1 is independent of the lithology and is due to the decrease of overburden pressure.

A Comparison of Site Response Techniques Using Weak-Motion Earthquakes and Microtremors

The applicability of the microtremor spectral ratio method is examined by comparing microtremor and weak-motion earthquake site responses at seven permanent strong-motion sites in Victoria, British Columbia. For each site, a weak-motion earthquake standard spectral ratio (bedrock reference), the average horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio of up to five weak-motion earthquakes, and the average microtremor (Nakamura method) spectral ratio are compared. The geologic setting of Victoria is ideal for site response studies with a near-surface high impedance contrast between thin geologic layers of Victoria clay (about 11 m maximum in this study) and Pleistocene till or bedrock. Regardless of excitation source (weak-motion earthquakes or microtremors) and spectral ratio method, similar peak amplitudes and fundamental frequencies were found. Thicker material (>10 m) sites displayed higher peak amplitudes (up to six times amplification) at frequencies of 2–5 Hz compared to sites with a thin lens of material (<3 m) over bedrock that showed peak amplitudes at frequencies of >8 Hz.