High Density Bales Research Articles

Cotton Ginners Handbook – Packaging Lint Cotton

Bale packaging is the final step in processing cotton at the gin. Bale packaging is critical to protecting and preserving the quality of the ginned lint during shipping and storage before consumption at the textile mill. Smooth operation of the bale press and associated systems is required for the efficient operation of the ginning plant. Properly shaped bales are important to the safe and efficient handling and storage of bales. The bale press, condenser, and hydraulic systems must be sized to match the design capacity of the ginning plant in order to maximize capacity. Bale presses may be designed to produce Universal Density bales or High Density bales, although only Universal Density bales are currently approved by USDA. Proper maintenance of the bale press and related systems translates into reduced downtime for the ginning plant. All bale packaging, including the bale covering and strapping or ties, must be approved by the Joint Cotton Industry Bale Packaging Committee in order for the bales to be eligible for collateral in the Commodity Credit Corporation loan program. This manuscript discusses the individual components of a cotton gin bale packaging system and settings to ensure the consistent production of uniform bales of cotton lint.

Water leaching of herbaceous biomass bales to reduce sintering and corrosion

Two different leaching treatments (immersion and irrigation) were applied to the biomass bales of two different herbaceous solid biofuels (barley straw and tall wheatgrass) in order to improve their sintering and corrosion behaviour during combustion. Six immersion treatments (1 h with and without stirring, and 5 h, 1 day and 2 days without stirring) and two irrigation treatments with tap water (900 L and 1800 L) were tested. The bales made of barley straw were of high-density 140 kg/m3) whereas the density of tall wheatgrass bales was lower (80 kg/m3). After the leaching treatment, bales were dried naturally indoors. Sintering and corrosion tests along with chemical elemental analyses, X-ray diffraction and SEM analyses were performed on the lixiviated biomass.An immersion treatment of 5 h reduced the sintering and corrosion potential of both types of bales to an acceptable level. In high-density bales, the irrigation treatment (1800 L) provided similar sintering and corrosion reductions than those obtained when the 5 h immersion treatment was applied. However, in low-density bales, the immersion treatments provided much better results than irrigation leaching systems, probably in connection with their different degrees of compaction. The naturally drying process of the lixiviated bales can be considerably long, particularly after immersing high-density bales. The drying period to reach a moisture level of 20% w.b, was longer than 100 days for high-density bales and shorter than 20 days for low-density bales.

Control system for a continuous compaction large square baler

Bale density impacts the cost to harvest, aggregate, store and transport hay or biomass. To achieve legal transport weight limits in many countries, the large square bale (LSBe) wet basis density should be approximately 240 kg·m−3. Current large-square balers (LSBers) create density by employing a reciprocating plunger to apply pressures in excess of 700 kPa to the bale face, but densification by a reciprocating plunger is inefficient because of the intermittent manner that the pressure is applied. What is explored here is an alternative bale densification method that uses an auger and conical compaction rollers to compact material in a continuous fashion. Compared to conventional LSBers, this new baler concept has the potential to create high-density bales with a machine that is less complicated and lighter weight. An important component of this baling mechanism was a closed-loop control system developed to achieve a desired bale density, as well as control bale separation and bale length. The control system varied bale chamber compression panel pressure to alter auger force and subsequent bale density. Using this control system enabled the baler to achieve dry basis densities ranging from 166 to 334 kg·m−3 with auger forces less than 44 kN, nearly a fifteen-fold reduction in force compared to a conventional plunger type LSBer.

THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF PANELS WITH HIGH DENSITY, RANDOMLY ORIENTED STRAW BALES

This paper describes the hot-box testing (based on ASTM C1363-11) of seven straw bale wall panels to obtain their thermal conductivity values. All panels were constructed with stacked bales and cement-lime plaster skins on each side of the bales. Four panels were made with traditional, 2-string field bales of densities ranging from 89.5 kg/m3–131 kg/m3 and with the bales on-edge (fibres perpendicular to the heat flow). Three panels were made with manufactured high-density bales (291 kg/m3–372 kg/m3). The fibres of the manufactured bales were randomly oriented. The key conclusion of this paper is that within the experimental error, there is no difference in the thermal conductivity value for panels using normal density bales and manufactured high density bales up to a density of 333 kg/m3. However, because of lack of precision of the hot-box, no conclusions can be made on the true thermal conductivity of the high density bale panels. In addition, the panels tested were found to have significant voids between bales, and this is believed to have contributed to higher measured thermal conductivity values compared to those reported in the literature for normal density bale panels. Thermal properties may be affected for bales with higher densities than 333 kg/m3, therefore further testing is suggested.

The Confounding Effects of Particle Size and Substrate Bulk Density on Phanerochaete chrysosporium Pretreatment of Panicum virgatum

Phanerochaete chrysosporium treatment is less effective as a biological pretreatment on feedstock with larger particle sizes. We hypothesized that the improved effectiveness of the pretreatment when smaller particle sizes are used may be due to the inherently higher bulk density with smaller particle sizes. The effects of substrate bulk density and particle size on the efficacy of P. chrysosporium pretreatment of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) was tested experimentally. Phanerochaete chrysosporium was grown on senesced switchgrass (2 different particle sizes) with various bulk densities. In all treatments, the fungal-pretreated samples released more glucose during enzymatic saccharification than the control sample. Substrate bulk density was a statistically significant factor in explaining the variation in the amount of glucose released per gram of substrate used. However, the particle size was not found to be a significant factor. On-farm switchgrass pretreatment may not require particle size reduction if the switchgrass is supplied in high-density bales.

Sugarcane trash shredding

With the trend of increased mechanical harvesting of sugarcane without burning, the trash emerges as a likely residue to be used as a fuel. This practice results in a large amount of material remaining in the field. As an alternative it has been used for gathering is the adoption and operation of windrowing and baling this trash after harvest. Seeking to reduce the granulometry of the trash in the primary extractor harvester, to minimize the cost of transporting the bales and the elimination of shredding process in the industry, a shredder system of the trash was designed. A shredder system was assembled on the primary extractor of harvester of chopped sugarcane, which through rotating blades, will triturate all the vegetable material that passes into the primary extractor, reducing the particle size and leaving this material deposited on the soil, to be later transformed into high density bales. The system has shown promise in the shredding of trash, because the resulting characteristics of the trash indicated much smaller granulometry than is normally allowed by conventional harvesters.

SHAM—a simulation model for designing straw fuel delivery systems. Part 2: model applications

A dynamic simulation model for designing straw fuel delivery systems, called SHAM (Straw HAndling Model), has been used to evaluate the performance, costs and energy needs of various straw handling systems. The prerequisites of straw harvest were investigated for three Swedish regions with different climatic and geographical conditions. As a fuel in district heating plants, the simulations showed that straw has the best opportunity of becoming economically competitive in agricultural districts in south Sweden. The simulations demonstrated, however, that the costs can be lowered and the system performance increased for these places by using appropriate management strategies. SHAM was also used to determine the number of machines in the handling operations in order to minimize the total fuel costs for a straw- and oil-fired district heating plant. The optimizations showed that straw can be delivered to the plant at a cost of 29.9 SEK GJ −1. Finally, two alternatives to the conventional high-density baler systems were evaluated; systems based on compact rolls and systems based on chopped straw stored outdoors. It was demonstrated that these technologies cost about 5–20% more compared with high-density bales. However, their prospects of becoming competitive harvest methods for the future are good.

Storage Losses in Net-wrapped, Large Round Bales of Alfalfa

Net- and twine-wrapped bales were stored from July 1990 until April 1991 at three Kansas sites. Changes in dry matter (DM), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and available crude protein (ACP) levels during the storage period were not significantly different between net- and twine-wrapped bales. Although a significant difference in DM change between inside and outside storage was found at one site, it was not considered important because DM changes were small. No difference in ADF or ACP changes were found between initial samples from the full bale and those taken from the outer 10 cm (4 in.) of the bales after outside storage. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) increases were greater (p < 0.05) in twine-wrapped bales. The NDF increase in the outer 10 cm (4 in.) of twine-wrapped bales stored outside was greater (p < 0.05) than that in net-wrapped bales. The minimal weathering loss was attributed to lower than average rainfall experienced during the storage period, high density bales, and low initial hay moisture content (m.c.) at two sites. Based on the results of this study, net wrap is not justified on the basis of reduced weathering loss. However, the trend towards higher fiber concentrations in the outer 10 cm (4 in.) of twine-wrapped bales indicates that net-wrap may reduce weathering loss when weather conditions are more severe.

A comparison of farm-scale methods of application of sodium hydroxide on the nutritive value of a winter wheat straw

An experiment was devised to test five commercially available systems of treating straw with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for their efficiency and effect on the chemical composition, digestibility and energy value in vivo of the resulting straws. Winter wheat straw (cultivar ‘Mercia’) was baled and treated as follows. Treatment T1, untreated and chopped through a Stropper box; T2, JF 2000 machine; T3, tub grinder (large round bales); T4, stropper box (large, high density bales); T5, stropper box (large, round bales); T6, forage harvester and mixer wagon. Treatments T2–T6 all had NaOH applied as a 32% (w/v) solution to give approximately 45 kg t −1 of straw dry matter (DM). NaOH treatment, regardless of method of application, reduced the hemicellulose content of the DM, and the gross energy content, though the level of change was variable between treatment methods. The variability noted for buffer soluble lignin was strongly correlated with the apparent level of NaOH addition calculated from the measured sodium content ( r 2 = 98.8%). Overall, digestible organic matter in the DM (DOMD) measured in vivo increased significantly (131 g kg −1) in the straw with NaOH treatment. The changes in DOMD in vivo as a result of method of application of the NaOH were significant only for T4 and T6 (595 and 559 g kg −1, respectively, P < 0.05); this difference corresponded to the highest and lowest NaOH application rates, respectively. Metabolizable energy (ME) content also increased significantly as a result of NaOH treatment by 2.42 MJ kg −1 DM ( P < 0.05), but method of application had no significant effect. Rate of application of NaOH had an effect on the degree of upgrading and was dependent on the estimation of rate of straw throughput by the operator and was not constant. T2 and T6 appeared to be the only equipment to give the correct rate of NaOH application.

STRESS RELAXATION OF ALFALFA UNDER CONSTANT DISPLACEMENT

ABSTRACT Alfalfa is being used in the production of high density bales and wafers. The relaxation of the alfalfa under constant displacement is important for the determination of the optimum compression hold-time to minimize of the strength of retaining strapping for high-density bales. Experimental data was obtained and then analyzed using a three term exponential decay function. The functional dependence of the parameters on the moisture content, loading rate, maximum density, and leaf content was determined using stepwise linear regression on data from 140 tests. It was shown that the shortest time constants were most sensitive to moisture content, leaf content, and loading rate; whereas, the longest time constant was dependent on the moisture content and the maximum density used in loading the alfalfa. However, a hold time of less than 10 seconds reduces the stress level by approximately 60%.

The effects of bale density, type of binding and storage surface on the chemical composition, nutrient recovery and digestibility of large round hay bales

Alfalfa-bromegrass forage was cut at midbloom, sun cured to 847 g dry matter (DM) kg −1 and baled as either high-density (189 kg m −3) or low-density (146 kg m −3) large round bales bound with either plastic mesh (2 cm between strands) or sisal twine spaced at 15 to 20 cm. Bales were stored outside either on a 15 cm layer of crushed rock (7.5 cm diameter) or on the ground. High-density bales had higher ( P < 0.01) mean temperatures during the first 32 days of storage than low-density bales. After 4 and 9 months of storage, high-density bales had a higher ( P < 0.05) DM concentration and a lower ( P < 0.01) proportion of N as acid detergent insoluble N (ADIN) than low-density bales; these effects were greatest in the outer 30 cm of the bales (density × part, P < 0.05). High-density bales had a greater ( P < 0.01) unweathered DM recovery than low-density bales. Plastic mesh-bound bales had: higher (binding × part, P < 0.01) in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) concentrations, lower neutral detergent fiber (NDF; binding × part, P < 0.01), acid detergent fiber (ADF; binding × part, P < 0.01), acid detergent lignin (ADL; binding × part, P < 0.05) and ADIN (binding × part, P < 0.01) concentrations in their outer 30 cm and greater ( P < 0.01) recoveries of total DM, unweathered DM and IVDDM than twine-bound bales after 4 and 9 months of storage. Plastic mesh binding resulted in: smaller (density × binding, P < 0.01) increases in ADF, ADL and ADIN concentrations and smaller (density × binding, P < 0.05) decreases in total DM, unweathered DM and IVDDM recoveries in low-density than in high-density bales. Bales stored on crushed rock had lower ( P < 0.01) temperatures during the first 32 days than ground-stored bales. After 4 and 9 months of storage, rock-stored bales had higher ( P < 0.01) DM concentrations than ground-stored bales; this effect was greater in hay from the outer 30 cm of the bales (surface × part, P < 0.01). Bales stored on crushed rock had higher (surface × part, P < 0.01) IVDDM concentrations in their outer 30 cm and greater unweathered DM ( P < 0.01) and IVDDM ( P < 0.05) recoveries than ground-stored bales. In digestion trials, plastic mesh binding or rock storage of high- or low-density bales resulted in greater ( P < 0.05) DM intakes by sheep than twine binding or ground storage, but had no effects on hay DM digestibility.

Aflatoxin formation in hay treated with formic acid and in isolated strains of Aspergillus flavus

The possibility of improving the keeping qualities of field-dried and hayloft-dried hay, with dry matter contents of 55 and 73% by adding sodium chloride, formic acid and propionic acid was investigated. Field-dried, sodium-chloride-treated hay was stored in containers, while controls and acid-treated hay were pressed into high-density bales. All hayloft-dried hay was stored in containers. Fungal attacks were very heavy, especially in the baled hay. The contaminating flora was examined at the temperature maximum and after 40 and 32 days storage for field-dried and hayloft-dried hay respectively. The genera Penicillium, Cladosporium and Trichothecium were predominant in hayloft-dried hay, and the differences between varying dry matter contents were insignificant. Mostly Aspergillus spp., but also Penicillium spp., occurred in the field-dried hay at 73% dry matter content but at 55% the flora consisted mostly of Aspergillus flavus, and the formic acid-treated hay contained almost a pure culture of this fungus. In addition, aflatoxin B 1 and G 1 (635–1000 μg/l) were demonstrated in this formic acid-treated hay. Toxin formation in isolates of A. flavus from differently treated hay specimens was also investigated on various substrates.

High-Density Cotton in American Mills

Interest in the use of high-dercsity cotton has recently been stimulated by two factors: first, the necessity for diverting to domestic use the large quantity of cotton which had been originally packed in high-density bales for export; and second, the possibility that it would be necessary to compress to high density a large proportion of the crop for shipment within the country in order to conserve shipping space. Textile Research Institute, Inc., has investigated the various aspects of the subject, including the feasibility of using high-density cotton in American mills,, the effect of high-density compression on spinning quality, and other factors. The results of this investigation are embodied in a fifteen page report of which the following is a summary. This report has been issued to all members of the Insti tute. Non-members may obtain copies at the price of one dollar per copy by writing to the Institute.