Hepatoprotective Activity Research Articles

Oral antituberculosis drugs (OAT) used repeatedly can negatively impact the liver. Natural compounds with high antioxidant potential could be used as hepatoprotective agents. This study aims to determine the hepatoprotective activity of the combination ethanolic leaf extract of Syzygium polyanthum (SPEE) and Moringa oleifera (MOEE) in rats administered with OAT. The hepatoprotective activity of the combination of SPE and MOE was determined by calculating the SGOT and SGPT levels of rats administered rifampicin (RMP), pyrazinamide (PZA), and isoniazid (INH) for 14 days. An experimental study using eight groups: standard control (CMCM-Na), negative control treatment with OAT (RMP 100 mg/kg BW; PZA: 252 mg/kg BW INH 50 mg/kg BW), positive control (OAT + Curcumin 100 mg/kg BW), OAT+SPEE 150 mg/kg BW group, OAT+MOEE 400 mg/kg BW group, and 3 group OAT + combination SPEE and MOEE (25%: 75%; 50%:50%; 75%:25%). SGPT & SGOT levels were determined using spectrophotometry with analytical methods using specific SGPT & SGOT reagent kits at 340 nm. After 14 days of OAT administration, SGOT levels increased by 1.3-fold, and SGPT levels increased by 1.8-fold compared to baseline levels. This considerable increase is still considered mild hepatotoxicity. The combination of SPEE: MOEE (25%:75%) was most effective in decreasing SGOT levels by 23.5%, or 1.3-fold, whereas the combination treatment of SPEE: MOEE (75%; 25%) was most effective in reducing SGPT levels by 51.56%, or 2-fold. The ratio value of the decrease in SGOT and SGPT levels from single SPEE and MOEE and the combination of both (p>0.05). The combination treatment of SPEE and MOEE in rats administered OAT showed an additive effect and could evolve as a hepatoprotective substance.

Scientists around the world are focusing on 'green,' environmentfriendly, and cost-effective green synthesis of nanometals using various plant extracts to combat various ailments. Among nanometals, Silver (Ag) is one of the most commercialised nanomaterials due to its wide applications in biotechnology and biomedical fields. The present study reports the first facile synthesis, characterization, and process optimisation of Ag nanoparticles (NPs) using aqueous Grewia tiliaefolia leaf extract (Gt) as a reducing and surface functionalising agent. Characterisation of Gt-mediated Ag-NPs was performed using FTIR. The morphology and microstructures of Gt-derived Ag-NPs were analysed using TEM and FE-SEM. In vitro, antioxidant activity was evaluated against DPPH radicals, hydrogen peroxide radicals, and ferric ions. In vitro, anticancer activity was assessed on MCF-7 and HepG2 cell lines. In vivo, hepatoprotective activity was tested against paracetamol-induced liver toxicity in rats. FTIR analysis confirmed the interaction between Ag-NPs and Gt. The optimal conditions for Gt-derived Ag-NPs were found to be 4 mM AgNO3, 5% Gt, at 90°C for 60 minutes, at pH 9. UV-Visible spectroscopy, XRD, FE-SEM, and TEM revealed the phase formation, spherical morphology, and surface functionalisation of Gt-derived Ag-NPs, which were stable (-28.3 mV) with an average particle size of 14.5±0.05 nm. The Gt-derived Ag-NPs were found to be highly effective in significantly inhibiting DPPH radical, ferric ions, and hydroxyl radicals. Additionally, the cytotoxicity of Gt-derived Ag-NPs was more effective against MCF-7 cells compared to HepG2 cells. They also exhibited dose-dependent protection against hepatoprotective activity in albino rats. The hepatoprotective effects of Gt-mediated Ag-NPs likely result from the combined action of bioactive phytochemicals (such as α/β-amyrin, γ-lactones, betulin, and lupeol), and their ability to scavenge ROS, reduce oxidative stress, and modulate inflammatory pathways. These mechanisms, supported by reduced lipid peroxidation and increased antioxidant activity in paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity, suggest their therapeutic potential in liver protection and regeneration. Overall, Gt proves to be an eco-friendly and non-toxic source for synthesizing bioactive Ag-NPs at optimal conditions.

Effects of curcumin-liposome formulation on inflammatory cascade activated by oxidative stress in primary human corneal epithelial cells.

Selenium-enriched tea - chemical composition and health benefits.

Background/Objectives: Eleutherococcus senticosus (Siberian ginseng) is an adaptogenic plant widely recognized for its antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties; however its hepatoprotective potential properties are unexplored. This study aimed to evaluate whether the fruit extract of E. senticosus contains chemical constituents with hepatoprotective effects in a paracetamol-induced liver injury model in mice. Methods: Female BALB/c mice were randomized into five groups: control, paracetamol (300 mg/kg, IP), E. senticosus extract (750 or 1500 mg/kg, PO) + paracetamol, and silymarin (50 mg/kg) + paracetamol. Extracts were administered for seven days before paracetamol challenge. Biochemical markers (ALT, AST, urea, creatinine, protein, albumin) and hematological parameters were assessed, and organs were subjected to histopathological examination. Phytochemical characterization of the extract was performed using UHPLC-DAD-MS and ICP-OES. Results: The 750 mg/kg dose of E. senticosus extract maintained ALT, AST, urea, and creatinine levels close to control values, while the higher dose (1500 mg/kg) was less effective and showed an increase in serum urea. Both extract doses and silymarin attenuated creatinine elevation induced by paracetamol. No histopathological changes were detected in the kidneys or brains of treated animals. Phytochemical analysis revealed high contents of phenolic acids (chlorogenic and dicaffeoylquinic acids), flavonoids, amino acids, and essential minerals. Conclusions: E. senticosus fruit extract demonstrated a hepatoprotective effect at an optimal dose (750 mg/kg), indicating a potential dose-dependent effect. The absence of histopathological alterations in key organs supports the fruit extract’s safety.

Background/Objective: Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. is a traditional medicinal herb utilized throughout Asia that is widely used for hepatoprotective activity, wound healing, and blood cooling/bleeding disorders. This work aimed to identify bioactive constituents from E. prostrata collected in Vietnam, and clarify their anti-inflammatory capacity of the extract and active fraction. Method: Extraction and isolation of compounds from the extract of E. prostrata were performed. The extract, fractions, and isolated compounds were evaluated for inflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Isolates showed inflammatory potential by in silico approaches. Results: Thirteen compounds, comprising a first isolated compound (diosmin), flavonoids, and phenolic derivatives, were separated and identified. The protein–protein interaction (PPI) network demonstrated TNF, IL6, AKT1, NFKB1, EGFR, and PTGS2 as central targets, highlighting their significance in inflammatory signaling. Gene Ontology and KEGG pathway enrichment underscored substantial participation in TNF and IL-17 cytokine signaling pathways. Molecular docking demonstrated robust interactions between several flavonoids and core targets, indicating their function as essential regulators. Experimental validation in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages revealed that wedelolactone, luteolin, apigenin, and quercetin significantly inhibited TNF-α and IL-6 production. Conclusions: The results proposed that E. prostrata demonstrates its anti-inflammatory efficacy via a multi-target, poly-pharmacological strategy that encompasses central cytokine pathways and upstream receptor-mediated signaling. Our findings offer new mechanistic evidence that supports the ethnomedicinal application of E. prostrata and indicates its potential as a valuable natural resource for treating anti-inflammatory diseases.

Genistein, a natural isoflavonoid found predominantly in legumes and soy-based foods, has garnered significant attention due to its multifaceted mechanisms and potential therapeutic applications. Chemically, genistein is a 4',5,7-Trihydroxyisoflavone having a molecular formula of C15H10O5, which enables its interactions with diverse biological targets. The main objective of this review is to summarize the pharmacological effects of genistein, elucidating its potential mechanisms of action. Furthermore, the review emphasizes genistein's impact on human health when used as a dietary supplement. The authors have gone through a vast number of article sources from various scientific databases like Google Scholar, PubMed and Web of Science. Genistein exhibits antioxidant properties by countering free radicals and reducing lipid peroxidation. Genistein's anti-inflammatory effects involve inhibiting proinflammatory pathways and cytokine production. Notably, it shows anticancer potential against various malignancies by promoting apoptosis, inhibiting angiogenesis, and hindering metastasis. Moreover, genistein has antidiabetic properties, enhancing insulin secretion, protecting β-cells, and improving glucose tolerance. Its antiviral and antibacterial actions contribute to inhibiting pathogen growth and viral replication. Genistein accelerates wound healing by minimizing oxidative stress, facilitating reepithelialization, and suppressing inflammation. Its potential in peptic ulcer treatment is supported by anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Hepatoprotective activities include inhibiting lipid peroxidation, bolstering antioxidant defences, and modulating metabolic enzymes. Furthermore, genistein positively impacts the immune response, influencing cytokine levels, lymphocyte proliferation, and interferon production. Genistein's multifaceted pharmacological activities render it a promising dietary supplement with implications for diverse health conditions, warranting further comprehensive research to optimize its clinical utility.

Background/Objectives: Grape seed oil (GSO) is a potent source of dietary phytochemicals, particularly polyphenols and flavonoids, known for their health-promoting properties. This study aims to investigate the anticancer and hepatoprotective effects of a nanoemulsion formulation of grape seed oil (GSONE), to enhance the efficacy and bioavailability of its phytochemical constituents against solid tumors. Methods: Ninety female Swiss albino mice were divided into six groups: control, alone, GSONE alone, Ehrlich solid tumor (EST), EST treated with GSO, and EST treated with GSONE. Tumor development, growth performance, serum biochemistry, antioxidant status, hepatic histopathology, apoptotic gene expression, and flow cytometry analyses were assessed following 30 days of daily oral treatment. Results: GSONE significantly reduced tumor weight and volume (52.9%) and more effectively counteracted tumor-induced body weight loss than crude GSO. Treatment with GSONE normalized serum protein levels and improved liver function markers (AST, ALT, ALP, total bilirubin) to near-control values. Tumor markers (AFP, CEA) and oxidative stress indices (MDA, 8-OHdG) were markedly decreased, while activities of hepatic antioxidants (SOD, CAT, GPx, GSH) were restored. GSONE enhanced gene expression of pro-apoptotic markers (Bax, TP53, caspase-3, caspase-9), suppressed anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, and significantly increased the proportion of p53- and cleaved caspase-3-positive tumor cells. Liver histopathology and ultrastructure demonstrated normalized morphology and reduced damage in GSONE-treated mice. Multivariate analyses confirmed GSONE’s restorative effect compared to raw GSO. Conclusions: The delivery of dietary phytochemicals via nanoemulsion significantly enhances antitumor and hepatoprotective actions in a preclinical solid tumor model. These findings support the potential of phytochemical-rich edible oils, enhanced by nanotechnology, for dietary prevention and adjunctive management of cancer.

Herpetrione alleviates ANIT-induced cholestatic liver injury by targeting FXR to suppress NF-κB signaling.

Background: Diabetes mellitus and cancer often coexist, increasing the risk of liver injury. Doxorubicin (DOXO) is a widely used antineoplastic drug with known hepatotoxic effects. Dapagliflozin (DAPA) and trimetazidine (TMZ) have been reported to exert hepatoprotective actions, but their combined effects remain unclear. Methods: Forty-eight male Sprague Dawley rats were allocated into six groups: control, streptozotocin (STZ), STZ + DOXO, STZ + DOXO + DAPA, STZ + DOXO + TMZ, and STZ + DOXO + DAPA + TMZ. Liver injury was assessed by histopathology, oxidative stress markers (MDA, GSH), and immunohistochemistry (Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α), 8-Hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), Caspase-3, Transforming Growth Factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1), Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL), Nuclear Factor kappa-B/p65 (NF-κB/p65)). Results: STZ and STZ + doxorubicin groups developed marked hepatic injury. Unexpectedly, the STZ + doxorubicin group showed lower alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels, along with reduced Malondialdehyde (MDA) and elevated glutathione (GSH), suggesting compensatory antioxidant and apoptotic responses. Dapagliflozin more effectively normalized transaminases and reduced oxidative DNA damage, whereas trimetazidine exerted stronger effects on MDA, GSH, and inflammatory markers. The combination provided additive but not consistently superior benefits. Immunohistochemical analyses confirmed these findings, showing attenuated expression of TNF-α, 8-OHdG, caspase-3, and TGF-β1 and reduced TUNEL-positive hepatocytes and NF-κB/p65 immunoreactivity following treatment, indicating coordinated anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects. Conclusions: Dapagliflozin and trimetazidine each attenuated diabetes- and doxorubicin-related hepatic injury through partly distinct mechanisms, with the combination providing additive but not consistently superior effects. These findings suggest a potential hepatoprotective role for both agents; however, the clinical implications remain uncertain and require confirmation in further mechanistic and translational studies.

Silymarin, a flavonolignan-rich extract of Silybum marianum, is widely recognized for its hepatoprotective potential. While rodent studies predominate, pigs (Sus scrofa) offer a more translationally relevant model due to their hepatic architecture, bile acid composition, and transporter expression, which closely resemble those of humans. This narrative review synthesises current evidence on the chemistry, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and hepatoprotective activity of silymarin in porcine models. Available studies demonstrate that when adequate intrahepatic exposure is achieved, particularly through optimised formulations, silymarin can attenuate oxidative stress, suppress inflammatory signalling, stabilise mitochondria, and modulate fibrogenic pathways. Protective effects have been reported across diverse porcine injury paradigms, including toxin-induced necrosis, ethanol- and diet-associated steatosis, metabolic dysfunction, ischemia–reperfusion injury, and partial hepatectomy. However, the evidence base remains limited, with few long-term studies addressing fibrosis or regeneration, and methodological heterogeneity complicates the comparison of data across studies. Current knowledge gaps in silymarin research include inconsistent chemotype characterization among plant sources, limited reporting of unbound pharmacokinetic parameters, and variability in histological scoring criteria across studies, which collectively hinder cross-study comparability and mechanistic interpretation. Advances in analytical chemistry, transporter biology, and formulation design are beginning to refine the interpretation of exposure–response relationships. Advances in analytical chemistry, transporter biology, and formulation design are beginning to refine the interpretation of exposure–response relationships. In parallel, emerging computational approaches, including machine-learning-assisted chemotype fingerprinting, automated histology scoring, and Bayesian exposure modeling, are being explored as supportive tools to enhance reproducibility and translational relevance; however, these frameworks remain exploratory and require empirical validation, particularly in modeling enterohepatic recirculation. Collectively, current porcine evidence supports silymarin as a context-dependent yet credible hepatoprotective agent, highlighting priorities for future research to better define its therapeutic potential in clinical nutrition and veterinary practice.

This study assessed the hepatoprotective efficacy of a non-pharmacopeial formulation (NPF) against rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicity, aiming to expand the repertoire of hepatoprotective agents in Unani medicine. An acute toxicity study and HPTLC analysis were performed. The experiment utilized 42 Wistar rats, each weighing between 150 and 200 g. The rats were systematically allocated into seven distinct groups, each containing six animals, identified as negative, positive, standard, and test groups A, B, C, and D. Liver damage was induced by oral administration of rifampicin at a dose of 500 mg/kg daily for 30days, following a 2-hour interval after the administration of standard and test drugs. The standard and test groups received Silymarin (100 mg/kg), NPF, Afsanteen, Kasni, and Asaroon at doses of 167, 117, 167, and 217 mg/kg, respectively, orally once daily for 30days. Serum levels of marker enzymes (SGOT, SGPT, and ALP), total protein (TP), and albumin (S. Alb) were evaluated. All groups underwent biochemical and histopathological analysis. The formulation was deemed safe at a dose of up to 2000 mg/kg. Compared to the standard drug, test groups A and D demonstrated potential protective effects on the liver enzymes. Test groups B and C exhibited normal liver architecture. Asaroon (test group D) demonstrated greater efficacy than NPF. Histopathologically, Afsanteen and Kasni were found to be effective. The study indicated that formulations by Unani scholars were more effective than non-pharmacopeial formulations, although the tested NPF remained effective and safe in thisstudy.

The increasing demand for plant-based therapies has highlighted the need for innovative delivery technologies to enhance the bioavailability of phytoconstituents. Ajwain (Carum copticum) is a medicinal plant recognized for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective attributes. Nevertheless, its therapeutic application is greatly affected by insufficient aqueous solubility and low absorption. Targeting the biopharmaceutical performance improvement of Ajwain seed extract (ASE) by integrating it into a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) was considered, along with assessing its protective effects. ASE underwent GC–MS analysis for phytochemical profiling, followed by solubility assessment in several oils, surfactants, and co-surfactants. The improved SMEDDS-ASE was characterized physicochemically for micelle formation potential, dispersibility, gastrointestinal stability, and polymer miscibility with ASE. The hepatorenal protective effects were evaluated in a rat model of acute hepatorenal injury generated by cisplatin (7.5 mg/kg, i.p.) through the assessment of serum biomarkers and histological analysis. SMEDDS-ASE exhibited the formation of tiny micelles with an average droplet size of 183 ± 5.8 nm in water, resulting in a dispersibility enhancement of at least 2.4 times compared to ASE in water. The treatment of SMEDDS-ASE (75 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly reduces different serum biomarker levels (decreased ALT, AST, ALP; p < 0.01; reduced creatinine, BUN; p < 0.05), which is ascribed to improved hepatorenal protection in a dose-dependent manner compared to ASE. Histological examinations suggest that SMEDDS-ASE may initiate the protection of hepatic and renal cells against damage and inflammation, thereby offering benefits in preventing diseases associated with free radicals. These findings suggest that the prospective implementation of the SMEDDS-based method may effectively enhance ASE’s nutraceutical properties.

Abstract Background Sepia pharaonis, a marine cuttlefish, contains bioactive compounds such as posterior salivary gland toxin with medicinal potential, though its pharmacological effects are largely unknown. This research is one of the first comprehensive studies to explore the chemical composition, antioxidant capacity, and anticancer effects of sepia ink against chemically induced HCC in rats, integrating in-vitro, in-vivo, and in-silico approaches. These findings suggest Sepia ink polysaccharides (SIP) could provide a low-toxicity, multi-targeted therapeutic option for HCC, potentially overcoming limitations of current standard treatments like drug resistance and organ toxicity. This study investigates Sepia ink's chemical composition, antioxidant properties, and anticancer potential. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) was induced in rats using N-nitrosodiethylamine (DEN) and phenobarbitone (PB). SIP were administered intraperitoneally at high doses (400 mg/kg), and its effects on body weight, liver marker enzymes, antioxidants (enzymatic and non-enzymatic), phase I metabolizing enzymes, and macromolecular damage in the liver were evaluated. Results In-vitro studies on HepG2 cells demonstrated an IC50 &gt; 80 μM. Histopathological and biochemical analyses confirmed SIP’s dose-dependent hepatoprotective activity, restoring altered parameters to near-normal levels. High-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) revealed seven bioactive compounds in SIP. In-silico studies identified Fucoidan Ligand-7 as a potent inhibitor of the Bcl-2 receptor, with a binding energy of −14.54 kcal/mol. Western blot analysis showed significant reductions in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) level in SIP-treated HCC rats. Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), a liver tumor biomarker, was significantly reduced in the SIP-treated group compared to the DEN-induced group. Discussion These findings highlight SIP’s hepatoprotective and anticancer potential, suggesting its therapeutic value against DEN-induced HCC and its ability to enhance the antioxidant defense system. Graphical Abstract

Soymida febrifuga, commonly known as Rohini, belongs to Meliaceae family. It is an indigenous medicinal plant, abundantly found in the forests of India and dry regions of the western Peninsula. According to the JCM Herbarium, the plant has not yet been assessed, but has been declared endangered in Madhya Pradesh. S. febrifuga has been revered since antiquity for its therapeutic and scientific significance. This article represents a comprehensive compilation of available data on S. febrifuga for the first time, drawing from classical texts, botanical floras and journal databases. It highlights the plant’s diverse therapeutic applications mentioned in Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and traditional folk medicine. Indigenous tribes have long used it to treat conditions including malaria, diarrhoea, skin disorders and as an alternative to Cinchona bark. However, significant challenge lies in accurately identifying S. febrifuga as "Rohini" in ancient texts due to regional variations in nomenclature. Despite these traditional uses, more rigorous scientific research is needed to validate these claims. This review also examines recent studies on the phytochemical, pharmacological and therapeutic properties of S. febrifuga, alongside classical references from ancient Acharyas detailing its synonyms, properties (karmas), rasapanchak and related controversies. The plant contains flavonoids with proven antibacterial, antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities. To ensure its sustainable use, effective conservation and cultivation strategies are essential. Additionally, in-depth phytochemical investigations, pharmacological and clinical evaluations are needed to substantiate its therapeutic potential. Emerging fields such as nanotechnology, network pharmacology and materials science, combined with standardized cultivation practices, present promising avenues to enhance the therapeutic and economic potential of S. febrifuga. This review aims to bridge traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches to unlock the full therapeutic potential of S. febrifuga, a valuable medicinal plant.

Mimosa pudica L., a neotropical native plant, is now a pantropical species renowned for its rapid thigmonastic (touch-induced) leaf movement. Beyond this well-known curiosity, it possesses a deep-rooted history in traditional medicine systems, including Ayurveda and Unani, where it is utilized for a spectrum of ailments such as gastrointestinal disorders, cutaneous wounds, inflammation, and urogenital complaints. The ethnomedical applications of the plant are supported by its complex phytochemical profile, which is rich in secondary metabolites. The main constituents include the toxic non-protein amino acid mimosine, various C-glycosylflavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, and other phenolic compounds. These bioactive molecules are correlated with a wide array of scientifically validated pharmacological properties. Preclinical investigations have demonstrated significant antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and diuretic activities. For example, extracts have shown efficacy in alloxan-induced diabetic models and protection against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity. The dual identity of this plant as a valuable medicinal resource and a problematic invasive weed in agricultural regions presents a complex ecological profile. This review correlates the current scientific knowledge on M. pudica, linking its traditional uses to its characterized phytochemicals and documented biological activities.

Siraitia grosvenorii (S. grosvenorii), a traditional medicine food homology plant, serves both dietary and medicinal purposes and is increasingly exploited for its bioactivities in pharmaceuticals and nutritional value. In this research, fifteen glycosides including three new cucurbitane-type triterpenoid glycosides named Luohanguosides A–C (1–3) and twelve known ones (4–15) have been isolated from the aqueous extract of fresh S. grosvenorii fruits. A comprehensive analysis of 1D, 2D-NMR, HRESIMS techniques along with some other spectroscopic methods led to the elucidation of their chemical structures. Further investigation focused on the hepatoprotective activities of compounds 1–15. It turned out that compounds 1, 5, and 10 exhibited significant hepatoprotective activities compared to bicyclol under the same concentration (20 μM), providing scientific support for further research on S.grosvenorii products for their preventive potential of hepatic diseases.

Picrorhiza kurroa, an endangered medicinal herb, is known for its bioactive iridoid glycosides, the Picrosides, which possess a range of pharmacological properties, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. As demand for this valuable plant increases, in vitro tissue culture conservation efforts have become critical. We attempted in vitro tissue engineering-assisted direct shoot regeneration from leaf explants of P. kurroa using various growth hormone combinations, for enhanced metabolite production. MS media, admixed with 0.5 mg/L thidiazuron and 1.5 mg/L kinetin, bypassed the callogenesis phase while offering 83% shoot regeneration efficiency. High-performance liquid chromatography analyses with shoots elucidated a high picroside-I content of up to 9.7 µg/mg. Gene expression analysis via qRT-PCR revealed a marked increase in the expression levels of critical genes associated with the Picroside-I biosynthesis pathway—namely HMGR, PMK, DXPS, G10H, DAHPS, and PAL—when compared to shoots generated through the callus-mediated process. Notably, a marked increase in the expression of geraniol synthase, a key gene in the iridoid pathway, was directly correlated with enhanced Picroside-I levels. This in vitro tissue engineering strategy enhances Picroside-I biosynthesis and sets the stage for future biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications in the conservation, genetic improvement, and commercial exploitation of P. kurroa.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-16636-8.

Botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, processing, and applications of Cibotium barometz (L.) J. Sm.: A review.

Fumaria officinalis: Phytochemical complexity and its medicinal significance.