Heat Transfer Limitations Research Articles

Annealing-induced one order of magnitude enhancement in heat dissipation at graphene/SiO2 interface

The potential applications of two-dimensional (2D) materials-based devices in various fields have garnered significant interest. However, the limited heat transfer efficiency across the interface between 2D materials and the substrate has impeded their widespread application. This study presents a novel approach to enhancing the interface thermal transport of a widely used graphene/substrate structure through repeated annealing. Using Raman thermometry, we measured the interface thermal resistance (R) at 9.51 × 10−5 m2 K/W, which was subsequently reduced by an order of magnitude to 5.00 × 10−6 m2 K/W after repeated annealing. Our experimental results, supported by atomic modeling, revealed the significant influence of wrinkles on the interface thermal transport. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images vividly illustrate the modulation of the surface structure due to repeated annealing, with the initial loose structure becoming tighter and the wrinkle flattened. Further phonon transport analysis revealed a significantly reduced phonon coupling rate between graphene and SiO2 due to the presence of wrinkles in the graphene. Our findings highlight the feasibility of annealing as a means of manipulating interface thermal transport and provide insights into the underlying mechanism, which may inspire further studies on enhancing thermal interface properties.

An Overview on 3D Printing of Structured Porous Materials and Their Applications

AbstractPorous materials play an essential role in chemical processes such as catalysis, adsorption, and in emerging technologies for electronic materials, light harvesting, and energy transfer. By far, zeolites have contributed most to industrial development. Other porous solid such as activated carbon, metal–organic frameworks, covalent organic frameworks, and porous coordination polymers also have been studied by researchers in the past two decades. The use of porous solids is set to grow in the future, and so is the need to fabricate them into more complex and diverse geometries for a variety of applications. Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, has provided the possibility to shape the materials into desired forms, which offers many advantages over their traditional configurations. Structured catalysts, for example, can help to overcome the drawbacks of conventional packed catalyst bed‐like mass or heat transfer limitations and high pressure drop. This review focuses on the latest advances as well as the current challenges in 3D printing of the porous solids. This article aims to contribute to the shape engineering of porous solids and provide a better understanding of their formulations, structures, techniques, properties, and applications.

Experimental study on thermal performance of ultra-thin heat pipe with a novel composite wick structure

The rapid advancement of high-performance electronic devices and high-capacity energy storage has prompted the development of ultra-thin heat pipes with a higher heat transfer limit, faster start-up speed, and lower thermal resistance. In the present study, a novel double-layer wick structure comprising sintered copper powder and spiral woven mesh was proposed to analyze how various combinations of porous media properties, structures, and heating surfaces influence the thermal performance of ultra-thin heat pipes. The wick structure consists of two layers: a layer of sintered copper powder with four different particle sizes and a layer of spiral woven mesh. To improve the starting characteristics, the starting time under different thermal loads was studied. Additionally, a comparison study was conducted between the ultra-thin heat pipe with a single type wick structure and the proposed wick structure. The results revealed that the ultimate power in the two horizontal states was 50 W. The thermal resistance of Horizontal-1 (heat applied to the sintered copper powder side) was 0.069 W/°C, and for Horizontal-2 (heat applied to the spiral woven mesh side), it was 0.093 W/°C, both measured at their respective ultimate thermal loads. Additionally, among all four structures in Horizontal-1, the shortest start-up time occurred at a power of 30 W, with a duration of 42 s. Finally, when compared to the single wick structure, the proposed double-layer wick structure exhibited an 11.1% increase in ultimate power.

Mesoscopic numerical study of the startup characteristics of grooved heat pipe under high heat flux

The dry-out phenomenon that occurs in the evaporation section under high thermal load can lead to heat pipe startup failure, which considerably affects the safe and efficient operation of microelectromechanical systems. In this study, the startup characteristics of a grooved heat pipe are investigated with the mesoscopic lattice Boltzmann method. The focus is on the effects of wettability, inclination angle, and liquid filling volume on the evolution of the liquid supply velocity and dry-spot area. Results show that nucleate boiling can be formed by starting the heat pipe at high heat flux, and the vapor jetting generated by bubble bursting can reduce the liquid supply velocity by more than 70%. Capillary pressure can be increased, and the perturbation of bubbles to the meniscus region can be suppressed by enhancing the wettability of the capillary wick, thus promoting the return of the condensate to the evaporation section. The pressure on the liquid side in the evaporation section decreases as the inclination angle increases, which shortens the waiting time for vapor core formation and improves the stability of boiling behavior. A non-monotonic relationship exists between the liquid filling volume and heat transfer limit time of the heat pipe, which reaches the maximum only when the initial liquid layer fills the capillary wick exactly.

Experimental Study and Visual Observation of a Loop Heat Pipe with a Flat Disk-Shaped Evaporator under Various Orientations

In this study, visualization treatment was applied to the flat disk-shaped evaporator of a loop heat pipe. By observing the liquid/vapor behavior inside the evaporator and compensation chamber, the effects of orientation on the performances during startup and during a step-increase in heat load were investigated. With water as the working fluid, the loop heat pipe was tested under three typical orientations of φ = −90°, φ = 0°, and φ = +90°. The startup time was the shortest for the φ = −90° orientation but there could be a slight temperature overshoot, resulting in an unsmoothed startup process. The startup speeds under the φ = 0° and φ = +90° orientations were similar, both without any significant temperature overshoot. The orientation could significantly change the heat leak and, therefore, the operating temperature and the heat-transfer limit. For the φ = +90° and φ = −90° orientations, the heat-transfer limits were about 71% and 157% of the value at the φ = 0° orientation, respectively. Based on visual observations, for the loop heat pipe operating in gravity-driven mode, there could be two different paths for the working fluid to return to the evaporator, namely, along the vapor line for low heat loads and along the condenser and liquid lines for relatively large heat loads, respectively.

Experimental study on the thermo-hydrodynamic characteristics of a nitrogen pulsating heat pipe

A simultaneous thermal and visual experiment is conducted on a silicon-based flat-plate nitrogen pulsating heat pipe (PHP) for the first time. The PHP operates successfully with six filling ratios (FRs) between 25% ∼ 76% under bottom heating mode. Start-up and quasi-steady state performances are analyzed. Two types of start-up processes induced by bubble nucleation and interface evaporation are observed, and different start-up mode results in different degrees of thermal performance hysteresis phenomenon. The optimal thermal resistance with different FRs is always lower in a lower FR working condition, but a lower FR results in a lower heat transfer limit. The optimal FR rises with increasing heat load range. The fluid flow data are quantified in two aspects, which are flow intensity and velocity, and coupled with the heat transfer data for analysis. It is inferred that the latent heat transfer efficiency in the nitrogen PHP is higher than that of the sensible heat transfer.

Experimental study of performance enhancement strategies for hydrogen production-purification systems in packed-bed reactors under power fluctuations

Methanol reforming for hydrogen production and purification is a key technology in current fuel cell hydrogen source systems. The packed-bed reactor has a simple structure and is widely used, yet it has disadvantages such as slow dynamic response and limited heat and mass transfer. In this paper, an experimental approach is used to simulate the reaction characteristics of the packed bed during power fluctuation and start-up phase. It is found that the combined catalysts are the best in terms of both economical and purification effects, especially the precious metal combined copper-based catalysts. Meanwhile, the methanol conversion rate can seriously affect CO-PROX during the fuel cell start-up phase, and the use of combined catalysts can mitigate the impact of power fluctuation on the system and reduce the CO concentration. The combination of catalysts in such a way that the noble metal should be ensured in the front section, the optimal reaction temperature of copper-based combination noble metal-based catalysts is explored, with reforming temperature of 200 °C and CO-PROX temperature of 180–200 °C, and optimal O2/CO ratio between 0.5 and 1.5, when methanol conversion reaches more than 70%, CO concentration as low as 0.42% and hydrogen concentration higher than 40%.

Experimental investigation of heat transfer limitations in concentric annular sodium heat pipes and thermosyphon

This paper presents experimental investigations on the heat transfer performance of concentric annular heat pipe (CAHP) and thermosyphon (CATP) using sodium as a working fluid for microreactor applications. CAHP characterized by wicks on the inner and outer walls offers the potential to enhance capillary force and enable more compact microreactor designs. The research aims to understand the implications of structural differences between CAHP, CATP and conventional heat pipe (CHP) and identify favorable conditions for their use in microreactors. The thermal behavior and heat transfer limits of CAHP and CATP were examined under various boundary conditions. The experimental results revealed that CAHP exhibited capillary limits approximately 71.2% higher than cylindrical heat pipes under horizontal conditions. However, the Chi model used for predicting capillary limits showed a difference about 19.7% in horizontal operation and exceeded 44.6% in vertical operation, highlighting the need for considering the effect of non-uniform capillary forces in CAHP. The presence of additional inner wick in CAHP provided large evaporation areas, which facilitated rapid vapor generation and enabled the development of a continuum flow faster than in CHP, by approximately 70 °C. However, in vertical operation, CATP necessitates higher heat fluxes and exhibits notable temperature disparities between the evaporator and condenser regions compared to CAHP. This difference can be explained depend on the vapor generation mechanisms: heat pipes utilize additional wick area to facilitate evaporation, while thermosyphon depend on boiling that the advantages related to the annular flow path in CATP are not clear. Furthermore, the presence of an adiabatic section yields contrasting effects: while it promotes the formation of larger menisci in heat pipes, its presence is unfavorable in thermosyphons as it can elevate boiling temperatures that delayed operations. The findings underscore the advantages of CAHP over CHP, particularly in microreactor applications, provide insights into design optimizations for compact microreactors, and showed gaps in operating prediction models and experimental results.

Experimental Study on the Thermal Performance of Flat Loop Heat Pipe Applied in Data Center Cooling

The cooling system is the auxiliary equipment that consumes the most energy in a data center, accounting for about 30 to 50% of the total energy consumption. In order to effectively reduce the energy consumption of a data center, it is very important to improve the heat exchange efficiency at the chip level. Compared with air cooling, single-phase cold plate liquid cooling, and immersion liquid cooling, the flat loop heat pipe (FLHP) is considered to be a better chip-level cooling solution for data centers. It has extremely high heat transfer efficiency and heat flux variability, and it can avoid the operation risk caused by liquid entering the server. In this paper, a FLHP with an evaporator designed with a “Tesla valve” flow channel configuration is developed. Experiments on the FLHP are carried out, focusing on the installation angles and cooling condition factors. The results show that an inclination angle of 20° is the critical point of the influence of gravity on the performance of the FLHP; to ensure good operation of the FLHP, the installation angle should be greater than 20°. The equivalent heat transfer coefficients of the FLHP condenser under different cooling conditions are calculated. It is found that water cooling can provide higher cooling heat transfer coefficients with lower energy consumption and operating noise. Additionally, the heat transfer limit, operating temperature uniformity, and start-up stability of the FLHP are significantly improved under water cooling conditions. The maximum heat load of the FLHP is up to 230 W, and the temperature difference of the evaporator surface can be controlled within 0.5 °C, under 20 °C water cooling. Finally, using the FLHP for thermal management of the chip, its heat transfer efficiency is 166 and 41% higher than that of air cooling and water cooling, respectively.

Permeability of a deformable metal hydride bed during hydrogen absorption

Heat transfer in porous metal hydride (MH) beds is the major bottleneck in scaling up of the metal hydride technology, while a role of mass transfer limitations in operation is generally overlooked in lab-scale experiments with relatively small beds. We present relations for gas permeability within the Kozeny-Carman approach and a dimensionless parameter to compare heat and mass transfer limitations in metal hydride devices. From experiments on hydrogen absorption and desorption in a flow-through reactor containing 1 kg of La0.9Ce0.1Ni5 alloy we experimentally determined an apparent permeability and showed, that the “breathing’ of the bed can lead to appearance of dual porosity due to fracturing of the bed, which leads to increased permeability at absorption of hydrogen (∼20 μm2) comparing with desorption (∼0.3 μm2). Particle swelling leads to decrease of porosity both due to decrease of pores and due to closure of fractures, thus deformation of the metal hydride bed leads to decrease of permeability during absorption. The effect can be important for flow-through reactors with thick layers of metal hydride.

Experimental studies on novel multi tubular reactor with shell having integrated buffer storage

This study concentrates on experimental analysis of a large scale metal hydride based hydrogen storage reactor having 50 kg LaNi5. In order to cater the heat transfer limitations of hydrogen storage in large scale systems, the present design have been developed as multi tubular reactor with shell having integrated buffer storage configuration with 7 tubes supported by means of 4 baffles having total 50 kg LaNi5 distributed equally among them and water as heat transfer fluid flows across the shell for heat transfer. The experimental study was performed for studying the absorption and desorption performance of the present hydrogen reactor wherein in case of absorption the parameters varied were HTF flow rate at 30 °C and supply pressure of hydrogen and in case of desorption which was carried out at atmospheric pressure, HTF flow rate and HTF temperature were varied. The metal hydride reactor reversibly stores 680 g of hydrogen amounting to 1.34 wt% of gravimetric capacity of metal hydride and equivalent energy storage of 10.4 MJ. In case of absorption, when the flow rate selected was 20 LPM the absorption time for 90 % reaction completion was observed to be 1286 s (21.4 min) at 30 bar H2 supply pressure. In case of desorption studies, it was observed that the varying flow rate from 15 to 25 LPM has negligible effect on hydrogen desorption hence 15 LPM was selected as flow rate for further desorption experiments. Further increasing HTF temperature from 60 °C to 80 °C improves the performance significantly.

Detection of methamphetamine in mouse femurs exposed to high temperature.

Bone samples are valuable for examining the cause of death and circumstance leading up to death when body fluids are not available for forensic toxicological analysis. Examined were heat-induced changes in methamphetamine and amphetamine concentrations in femurs removed from methamphetamine-injected mice to determine if the burned bones could be used for toxicology testing. The femurs were heated at 100°C, 300°C, or 500°C for 10 or 30 min. The tissue structure of the heated femurs was preserved at 100°C for 30 min but was destructed at higher temperatures. Methamphetamine and amphetamine were detected in femurs heated at 100°C for 10 min, 100°C for 30 min, and 300°C for 10 min (with methamphetamine and amphetamine concentrations ranging from 0.36 to 35 μg/g and 0.54 to 47 μg/g, respectively). Methamphetamine and amphetamine were detectable when heated above their decomposition temperature as a result of limited heat transfer do to protection provide by the femoral muscle. Thus, the bone could be a useful analytical sample in cases of burn-related deaths, where it is difficult to collect body fluids.

Dry Water as a Promoter for Gas Hydrate Formation: A Review.

Applications of clathrate hydrate require fast formation kinetics of it, which is the long-standing technological bottleneck due to mass transfer and heat transfer limitations. Although several methods, such as surfactants and mechanical stirring, have been employed to accelerate gas hydrate formation, the problems they bring are not negligible. Recently, a new water-in-air dispersion stabilized by hydrophobic nanosilica, dry water, has been used as an effective promoter for hydrate formation. In this review, we summarize the preparation procedure of dry water and factors affecting the physical properties of dry water dispersion. The effect of dry water dispersion on gas hydrate formation is discussed from the thermodynamic and kinetic points of view. Dry water dispersion shifts the gas hydrate phase boundary to milder conditions. Dry water increases the gas hydrate formation rate and improves gas storage capacity by enhancing water-guest gas contact. The performance comparison and synergy of dry water with other common hydrate promoters are also summarized. The self-preservation effect of dry water hydrate was investigated. Despite the prominent effect of dry water in promoting gas hydrate formation, its reusability problem still remains to be solved. We present and compare several methods to improve its reusability. Finally, we propose knowledge gaps in dry water hydrate research and future research directions.

Elucidation of granulation mechanisms along the length of the barrel in continuous twin-screw melt granulation

In the pharmaceutical industry, innovative continuous manufacturing technologies such as twin-screw melt granulation (TSMG) are gaining more and more interest to process challenging formulations. To enable the implementation of TSMG, more elucidation of the process is required and this study provides a better understanding of the granule formation along the length of the barrel. By sampling at four different zones, the influence of screw configuration, process parameters and formulation is investigated for the granule properties next to the residence time distribution. It showed that conveying elements initiate the granulation by providing a limited heat transfer into the powder bed. In the kneading zones, the consolidation stage takes place, shear elongation combined with breakage and layering is occurring for the reversed configurations and densification with breakage and layering for the forward and neutral configurations. Due to the material build-up in the reversed configurations, these granules are larger, stronger, more elongated and less porous due to the higher degree of shear and densification. This configuration also shows a significantly longer residence time compared to the forward configuration. Hence, the higher level of shear and the longer period of time enables more melting of the binder resulting in successful granulation.

Characteristics of CO2 hydrate formation and dissociation at different CO2-water ratios in a porous medium

Hydrate-based CO2 sequestration (HBCS) is a new concept to store a huge amount of CO2 in geological sediments in the form of crystalline solids. This technique can address several environmental challenges of the current geologic carbon sequestration approaches. This study aims to evaluate and compare the characteristics and kinetics of CO2 hydrate formation and dissociation in the porous medium (three-phase) and bulk (two-phase) conditions at different CO2-water ratios. The experimental results indicate that the pressure drops and consequently hydrate nucleation and growth are limited in the porous medium due to the presence of solid particles, limited CO2 mass transfer, and heat transfer. Calculation of CO2 mass consumption and rate of gas uptake during hydrate formation also support the limited CO2 consumption and gas uptake rate in the porous medium, compared to the bulk condition. The calculated driving force for each test condition suggests its critical importance in the kinetics of CO2 hydrate formation. On the other hand, limited CO2 diffusion to the aqueous phase, hydrate nucleation at the solid-CO2-water interface, and better protection of newly formed hydrates are among the main reasons for the success of hydrate formation at the CO2-limited ratio only in the porous medium. Lastly, three steps during hydrate dissociation via thermal stimulation, such as heat transfer driving, kinetic driving, and fluid flow driving, are no longer discernable in the porous medium due to the limited heat and mass transfer during the process.

Experimental investigation of a serial-parallel configuration helium pulsating heat pipe

Cryogenic pulsating heat pipe with the features of exceptional heat transfer performance and easy manufacturing is a good candidate to effectively transfer the cooling power energy in the conduction-cooled superconducting magnet system. In this work, a new type of serial-parallel 24-turn configuration pulsating heat pipe with helium as working fluid has been investigated experimentally under various working conditions by changing heat loads, inclination angles, and filling ratios. Experimental results demonstrate that for this pulsating heat pipe, working in vertical orientation is more appropriate. Additionally, the optimum filling ratio changes with the heat load input. The maximum effective thermal conductivity is 12357 W/(m∙K), obtained at the inclination angle of 90° and the filling ratio of 66.1%. The new configuration demonstrates high thermal performance well above the critical point of helium. At the filling ratio of 94.2% and the vertical position, this pulsating heat pipe can transport up to 25 W heat load without reaching dry-out occurrence. The influences of the number of turns and tube structure are discussed by comparing the serial-parallel 24-turn helium pulsating heat pipe with the 4-turn helium pulsating heat pipe and the serial 24-turn helium pulsating heat pipe with the same dimensions we tested previously. The result shows that the serial-parallel 24-turn helium pulsating heat pipe is more efficient concerning heat transfer capacity and thermal resistance. Increasing the number of turns can reduce the temperature gradient of the helium pulsating heat pipe, and changing the tube structure from series to series–parallel can greatly improve the heat transfer limit of the helium pulsating heat pipe. Moreover, another novel parallel 24-turn helium pulsating heat pipe is proposed. According to the theoretical analysis, The parallel 24-turn helium pulsating heat pipe could reach a higher maximum effective thermal conductivity, whereas the serial-parallel 24-turn helium pulsating heat pipe is outstanding in heat transfer capacity.

Highly efficient grooved NiTi tube refrigerants for compressive elastocaloric cooling

Elastocaloric (eC) cooling without environmental issues has been a promising substitute for the conventional vapor-compression refrigeration. Commercial superelastic NiTi shape memory alloy tubes show large elastocaloric cooling capacity and ultrahigh fatigue life under cyclic compression but suffer from the limited specific heat transfer area (Aht) and insufficient cooling performance. Up to now, compressive NiTi tube eC refrigerant with Aht larger than 1 m2 Kg−1 has not been available due to the easy buckling problem. In this work, the buckling-free vertically and spirally grooved NiTi tubes (VGT and SGT) with Aht of 1.04 m2 Kg−1 and 1.25 m2 Kg−1 respectively are developed as the compressive eC refrigerants. The VGT and SGT are fabricated by the slow-feeding wire electric discharge machining based on the bared NiTi tubes. Then a compressive eC refrigeration prototype (ERP) is built to experimentally characterize the specific cooling power (SCP) and system temperature span (ΔTspan) of the grooved tubes. Under the regenerative flow configuration, the VGT and SGT achieve large zero-ΔTspanSCP of 2.18 W g−1 and 2.61 W g−1 at the operation frequency (fERP) = 0.5 Hz. Besides, the VGT and SGT produce maximum no-cooling-load ΔTspan of 25.2 K and 27.7 K respectively at fERP = 0.417 Hz. The experimental SCP and ΔTspan exceed most of the reported eC regenerators and there are still rooms for enhancing the cooling results by improving the ERP in future. Overall, the developed VGT and SGT with large Aht records and excellent cooling performance show big potentials of heat transfer structure design in developing highly efficient eC devices.

Performance improvement of loop heat pipe by micro-pin-fins/powders composite surface

The loop heat pipe incorporating flow boiling (LHPFB) achieves much higher heat flux than conventional loop heat pipes (LHPs). However, the operating temperature is too high for the thermal management of electronic devices. In this study, various surfaces are fabricated on the boiling chamber baseplate of the LHPFB to reduce the junction temperature. The micro-pin-fins/powders composite surface has the best performance with the junction temperature reduced by 9.7℃, but it can hardly increase the heat transfer limit. When the coolant temperature is 25℃ and the evaporator thermal load is 200 W, the LHPFB with composite surface achieves a heat transfer limit of 500 W with the corresponding heat flux of 103.3 W·cm−2, and the operating temperature is 90.4℃. A theoretical model for heat transfer limit is proposed, based on which several methods to further improve the thermal performance are put forward. Compared with the conventional LHPs, the LHPFB with composite surface has the advantages of high heat transfer limit and low operating temperature, and therefore is a promising candidate for the thermal management of high-heat-flux electronic devices.

Pyrolysis of banana peel with microwave and furnace as the heating sources: The distinct impacts on evolution of the pyrolytic products

Microwave pyrolysis features with different heating mechanisms and heat transfer directions from traditional pyrolysis with furnace heating, which might impact evolution of volatiles and nature of biochar in varied ways. This was investigated in this study by pyrolysis of wet and dried banana peel with microwave heating and furnace heating at 400 and 600 °C in a fixed-bed reactor. The results showed that microwave pyrolysis could drastically promote gasification of volatiles to form significantly more gases like H2 via dehydrogenation and CO via cracking and decarbonylation. This was especially evident in the pyrolysis of wet banana peel with abundant water as the heat transfer medium. The dominance of cracking/gasification of volatiles in microwave pyrolysis was due to the rapid heating and the minimized heat transfer limitation, which suppressed the secondary condensation and thus diminished the formation of bio-oil and biochar. Microwave pyrolysis also favored the cracking of the cellulose/hemicellulose-derived aliphatic organics via cracking but promoted the formation of phenolics via cracking of lignin in banana peel. Moreover, the excessive cracking reactions in the microwave pyrolysis led to the biochar of more excellent thermal stability, lower abundance of oxygen-containing functionalities like CO and more rugged morphology than that with furnace heating source.

Comparative study on the effects of heating rate on char gasification behaviors by thermogravimetric analyzer and high-temperature stage microscope under non-isothermal condition

Understanding the intrinsic gasification reactivity and kinetics of coal char is vital in the process optimization, reactor design, and scaling of industrial gasifiers. Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) and visual high-temperature stage microscope (HTSM) were developed to investigate the mass loss and morphological evolution of coal char under non-isothermal conditions at different heating rates of 2.5, 5, and 10 °C/min, respectively. The gasification reactivity and kinetics obtained from different systems were comprehensively compared with the consideration of heating rate. Results showed that the consumption of carbon matrix and sintering could be responsible for the appearance of two reaction rate peaks in the rapid reaction stage in the HTSM experiments. As the heating rate increased from 2.5 to 10 °C/min, the limitation of heat and mass transfer and shortened residence time were conducive to the increase of observed reactivity and characteristic temperatures. Also, more serious diffusion and limitation could be responsible for the lower reactivity monitored by TGA and the difference in increasing amplitude of characteristic temperatures. Kissinger-Akahira-Sunosen (KAS) iso-conversional method was efficiently proposed to predict the gasification process. The activation energy varied with the carbon conversion, and then the average activation energies determined by TGA and HTSM were 191.51 and 199.01 kJ/mol, respectively. The evidence proved powerfully that the results close to the intrinsic behaviors could be provided by HTSM due to lower diffusion and limitation from heat and mass transfer.