Heat Flow Conditions Research Articles

Upward and downward unsteady-state directional solidification of a hypoeutectic Al-3wt.%Mg alloy

Solidification thermal parameters, such as growth rate, cooling rate and dendrite arm spacing (λ), have been measured in a hypoeutectic Al-Mg alloy directionally solidified under upward and downward transient heat flow conditions. The experimental setup used in this work consists of a water-cooled mould with heat being extracted from the bottom or the top, promoting upward and downward directional solidification, respectively. It is shown that the dendritic arm spacing are not significantly affected by interdendritic convection for both solidification configurations and single growth laws are proposed for both cases. The Bouchard- Kirkaldy model is shown to overestimate the experimental primary dendritic arm spacing, despite fitting properly the secondary dendrite arm spacing.

Effect of Heat Flow Condition in Analysis of Electron Beam Welding

Effect of Heat Flow Condition in Analysis of Electron Beam Welding

Tensile properties and related microstructural aspects of hypereutectic Al-Si alloys directionally solidified under different melt superheats and transient heat flow conditions

The present investigation deals with directional solidification (DS) of Al-15wt% and 18wt% Si alloys under transient heat flow conditions and further characterization of the related microstructures. Emphasis is given on the eutectic growth being affected not only by solidification kinetics but also by melt superheat, which is varied in two degrees for each alloy, i.e., 6% and 23% above the liquidus temperature. The dependences of interphase spacing (λ) on both solidification kinetics (fast, intermediate and slow cooling conditions) and on melt superheat during solidification of hypereutectic alloys are reported for the first time. Furthermore, functional experimental interrelations of tensile mechanical properties and interphase spacing between eutectic Si particles of both alloys evaluated are proposed. It is shown by these correlations that the tensile properties increase with the decrease in these spacings. More significant variations in properties are associated with a certain range of spacings (1.0µm <λ<2.3µm) in the case of the Al-15wt%Si alloy. Tensile strength and elongation-to-fracture decrease with increasing alloy silicon content. The applicability of the eutectic growth expression λ=f (V−1/2) has been verified for the present tested alloys and experimental conditions.

Heat flow: The neglected potential field for mineral exploration

This paper argues that heat flow is a valid ‘potential field method’ for mineral exploration. Certain ore deposits, most notably iron oxide copper gold uranium (IOCG-U) deposits, demonstrably affect the local heat flow and ground temperature conditions. The physics of steady state conductive heat flow is mathematically the same as gravitational acceleration, with buried heat sources analogous to buried masses. Detecting the surface signature of a buried heat source can therefore yield direct evidence of an ore body. The physics is robust, appropriate tools exist for the collection of heat flow data for exploration, and some simple strategies could yield valuable additional information about the subsurface for small marginal cost.

A Novel Identification Method of Thermal Resistances of Thermoelectric Modules Combining Electrical Characterization Under Constant Temperature and Heat Flow Conditions

The efficiency of a Thermoelectric Module (TEM) is not only influenced by the material properties, but also by the heat losses due to the internal and contact thermal resistances. In the literature, the material properties are mostly discussed, mainly to increase the well-known thermoelectric figure of merit ZT. Nevertheless, when a TEM is considered, the separate characterization of the materials of the p and n elements is not enough to have a suitable TEM electrical model and evaluate more precisely its efficiency. Only a few recent papers deal with thermal resistances and their influence on the TEM efficiency; mostly, the minimization of these resistances is recommended, without giving a way to determine their values. The aim of the present paper is to identify the internal and contact thermal resistances of a TEM by electrical characterization. Depending on the applications, the TEM can be used either under constant temperature gradient or constant heat flow conditions. The proposed identification approach is based on the theoretical electrical modeling of the TEM, in both conditions. It is simple to implement, because it is based only on open circuit test conditions. A single electrical measurement under both conditions (constant-temperature and constant-heat) is needed. Based on the theoretical electrical models, one can identify the internal and thermal resistances.

Fully Electrical Modeling of Thermoelectric Generators with Contact Thermal Resistance Under Different Operating Conditions

The Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators (TEGs) to supply electronic circuits by converting the waste thermal into electrical energy. This generated electrical power is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the TEG module’s hot and cold sides. Depending on the applications, TEGs can be used either under constant temperature gradient between heat reservoirs or constant heat flow conditions. Moreover, the generated electrical power of a TEG depends not only on these operating conditions, but also on the contact thermal resistance. The influence of the contact thermal resistance on the generated electrical power have already been extensively reported in the literature. However, as reported in Park et al. (Energy Convers Manag 86:233, 2014) and Montecucco and Knox (IEEE Trans Power Electron 30:828, 2015), while designing TEG-powered circuit and systems, a TEG module is mostly modeled with a Thevenin equivalent circuit whose resistance is constant and voltage proportional to the temperature gradient applied to the TEG’s terminals. This widely used simplified electrical TEG model is inaccurate and not suitable under constant heat flow conditions or when the contact thermal resistance is considered. Moreover, it does not provide realistic behaviour corresponding to the physical phenomena taking place in a TEG. Therefore, from the circuit designer’s point of view, faithful and fully electrical TEG models under different operating conditions are needed. Such models are mainly necessary to design and evaluate the power conditioning electronic stages and the maximum power point tracking algorithms of a TEG power supply. In this study, these fully electrical models with the contact thermal resistance taken into account are presented and the analytical expressions of the Thevenin equivalent circuit parameters are provided.

A METHOD FOR EVALUATING THERMAL TRANSFER THROUGH CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION IN LAYERED COMPOSITES

This paper presents the mathematical expressions for calculating the temperatures between the layers of a plan, tubular or spherical composite, by natural or forced conduction and convection or under the influence of stationary heat flow. Here there are taken into account two possibilities of contact between the layers: one is the perfect contact or the other acknowledges the existence of casual imperfections. The expressions also take into consideration the influence of added protection on the wall surface or the possible deposits of solids materials that can occur during the operation of the structure.

Thermal Parameters, Tertiary Dendritic Growth and Microhardness of Directionally Solidified Al-3wt%Cu Alloy

The main purpose of this paper is to evaluate both tertiary dendritic arm growth and microhardness of Al-3wt%Cu alloy during horizontal directional solidification under transient heat flow conditions. Experimental thermal profiles recorded during solidification process allowed to determine growth rate and cooling rate values which are associated with both tertiary dendritic arm spacings and microhardness. The results show that initial tertiary branches growth only occurs when a cooling rate value of 1.14 K/s is reached. Variation of tertiary spacings is expressed as-1.1 and-0.55 power law functions of growth rate and cooling rate, respectively. A comparative analysis with other studies published in the literature that analyze tertiary dendritic growth of Al-Cu alloys considering transient directional solidification is carried out. Dependence of microhardness on dendritic arrangement is evaluated by experimental laws of power and Hall-Petch types with a view to permitting the applicability of the resulting expressions.

Analysis of the Microstructural Evolution during the Transient Upward, Downward and Horizontal Directional Solidification of the Al-1.2wt%Pb Monotectic Alloy

Monotectic alloys are of great industrial importance because of their favorable tribological behavior. Many studies in order to better understand the morphologies obtained by monotectic reaction have been developed. To better understand the morphologies obtained by monotectic Al-1.2wt%Pb alloy reaction, especially in relation to induced convective flow, this paper aims to compare the microstructural evolution of the alloy obteind by directional solidification in transient heat-flow conditions in upward, downwand and horizontal solidification devices. It was observed a morphology transition from particles to fibers on upward and downward cases and a morphology of only particles on the horizontal case. The classical relationship used for eutectic growth, λ2v = C, which was considered applicable to monotectic reactions, didn’t seemed to be valid in the interphase spacing evolution for the downward device, however power functions (λ = C.va) were found in all cases.

Experimental characterization and simulation of a fin-tube latent heat storage using high density polyethylene as PCM

Polymers have rarely been used as storage materials in latent heat storages up to now. Thus, we systematically screened all polymers available on a large-scale, selected promising ones based on their theoretical properties and experimentally tested more than 50 candidates. We found that polyethylene, polyoxymethylene and polyamides are promising even as recycled material. Especially high density polyethylene (HDPE) turned out to be suitable as was shown by detailed thermophysical characterization including more than 1000 heating and cooling cycles for INEOS Rigidex HD6070EA. We built a storage with 170kg HDPE and a total mass of 600kg based on a fin-tube heat exchanger and characterized its energy capacity, power characteristics and temperature profiles using a thermal oil test rig. A 3-dimensional model was implemented in ANSYS Fluent achieving excellent agreement between experiment and simulation. By analyzing the internal heat transfer contributions, temperature distributions and flow conditions, we were able to propose an optimized design and operation for future polymer latent heat storages.

Convection in a volatile nitrogen-ice-rich layer drives Pluto's geological vigour.

The vast, deep, volatile-ice-filled basin informally named Sputnik Planum is central to Pluto's vigorous geological activity. Composed of molecular nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide ices, but dominated by nitrogen ice, this layer is organized into cells or polygons, typically about 10 to 40 kilometres across, that resemble the surface manifestation of solid-state convection. Here we report, on the basis of available rheological measurements, that solid layers of nitrogen ice with a thickness in excess of about one kilometre should undergo convection for estimated present-day heat-flow conditions on Pluto. More importantly, we show numerically that convective overturn in a several-kilometre-thick layer of solid nitrogen can explain the great lateral width of the cells. The temperature dependence of nitrogen-ice viscosity implies that the ice layer convects in the so-called sluggish lid regime, a unique convective mode not previously definitively observed in the Solar System. Average surface horizontal velocities of a few centimetres a year imply surface transport or renewal times of about 500,000 years, well under the ten-million-year upper-limit crater retention age for Sputnik Planum. Similar convective surface renewal may also occur on other dwarf planets in the Kuiper belt, which may help to explain the high albedos shown by some of these bodies.

Analytical study of thermal spreading resistance in curved-edge heat spreader

Because pieces of microelectronic devices are made in a wide variety of scales and shapes, heat must flow through them in spreading or constriction forms. Two heat flow conditions are primarily responsible for thermal spreading resistance: heat flowing from one solid to another with different cross-sectional areas (the primary focus of past studies); and heat flowing through a conductive solid with variable cross-sectional area. In this study, both conditions are considered simultaneously. The equation governing heat spreading is derived in the general curvilinear coordinate system. The Maxwell coordinate system is used as a special case to map the irregular geometry from Cartesian coordinates to the boundary-fitted curvilinear coordinate system. Temperature distribution and spreading resistance are then estimated by solving the equation governing heat conduction. A generalized thermal resistance is then introduced to evaluate the impact of variable cross-sectional area and heat source length on heat spreading. Finally, the effects of heat source length and the Biot number on spreading resistance are investigated.

Testing a Quantum Heat Pump with a Two-Level Spin

Once in its non-equilibrium steady state, a nanoscale system coupled to several heat baths may be thought of as a “quantum heat pump”. Depending on the direction of its stationary heat flows, it may function as, e.g., a refrigerator or a heat transformer. These continuous heat devices can be arbitrarily complex multipartite systems, and yet, their working principle is always the same: they are made up of several elementary three-level stages operating in parallel. As a result, it is possible to devise external “black-box” testing strategies to learn about their functionality and performance regardless of any internal details. In particular, one such heat pump can be tested by coupling a two-level spin to one of its “contact transitions”. The steady state of this external probe contains information about the presence of heat leaks and internal dissipation in the device and, also, about the direction of its steady-state heat currents. Provided that the irreversibility of the heat pump is low, one can further estimate its coefficient of performance. These techniques may find applications in the emerging field of quantum thermal engineering, as they facilitate the diagnosis and design optimization of complex thermodynamic cycles.

A CFD study and measurements of double glazing thermal transmittance under downward heat flow conditions

Fenestration systems are important elements of building facades. Although there are fenestrations placed at different angles in facades, not only vertical and roof glazing, there is little information about calculating procedures of thermal resistance and thermal transmittance for reversed glazing in which heat flows in a downward direction. The aim of this paper is to propose some amendments to EN 673–Glass in building – Determination of thermal transmittance (U value) – Calculation method [1] as well as to ISO 15099 – Thermal performance of Windows – Detailed calculations [2] to improve calculation accuracy for glazing under downward heat flow direction. In the paper CFD modeling of glazing thermal transmittance is presented. CFD calculated data were then validated by measurements performed in a calorimetric chamber in a test stand prepared for thermal transmittance measurements under different glazing angles resulting in a downward heat flow direction. Measurement data are then compared to simulation results. After achieving satisfactory agreement, some additional simulation results are presented and some amendments to glazing thermal resistance calculation procedure given in EN 673 and ISO 15099 standards are proposed.

Effect of Interfacial Heat Transfer Coefficient on Dendritic Growth and Microhardness during Horizontal Directional Solidification of an Aluminum-Copper Alloy

This paper presents a theoretical-experimental study for the prediction of the interfacial heat transfer coefficient during the horizontal directional solidification of an Al-3wt.%Cu alloy on water cooled stainless steel chill under transient heat flow conditions. Eight thermocouples were connected with the casting and the time-temperature data were recorded automatically. The thermocouples were placed at 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 50, 70 and 90 mm from the metal-mold interface. A numerical technique which compares theoretical and experimental thermal profiles was used to measure the heat transfer coefficient values. This has permitted the evaluation of the variation of this thermal parameter along the solidification which is represented by a power equation that shows the time dependence during the process given by hi = constant (t)-n, which represents the best fit between the experimental and calculated curves. The obtained results also include the variation of both primary and secondary dendritic arm spacings of alloy analyzed as a function of heat transfer coefficient. These dendrite arm spacings were found to decrease as the values of this coefficient are increased. Finally, an experimental law of the Hall-Petch type is proposed relating the resulting microhardness to the heat transfer coefficient investigated.

Influence of upward and horizontal growth direction on microstructure and microhardness of an unsteady-state directionally solidified Al-Cu-Si alloy

In order to analyze the effect of the growth direction on dendrite arm spacing (λ1) and microhardness (HV) during horizontal directional solidification (HDS), experiments were carried out with the Al-3wt.%Cu-5.5wt.%Si alloy and the results compared with others from the literature elaborated for upward directional solidification (UDS). For this purpose, a water-cooled directional solidification experimental device was developed, and the alloy investigated was solidified under unsteady-state heat flow conditions. Thermal parameters such as growth rate (VL) and cooling rate (TR) were determined experimentally and correlations among VL, TR, λ1 and HV has been performed. It is observed that experimental power laws characterize λ1 with a function of VL and TRgiven by: λ1=constant(VL)-1.1 and λ1=constant(TR)-0.55. The horizontal solidification direction has not affected the power growth law of λ1 found for the upward solidification. However, higher values of λ1 have been observed when the solidification is developed in the horizontal direction. The interrelation of HV as function of VL, TR and λ1 has been represented by power and Hall-Petch laws. A comparison with the Al-3wt.%Cu alloy from literature was also performed and the results show the Si element affecting significativaly the HV values.

Correlation between microstructure and hardness of a Bi-1.5wt%Ag lead-free solder alloy

In the present study a hypoeutectic Bi-1.5wt%Ag alloy was directionally solidified under transient heat flow conditions and the microstructure was analysed. Bi-Ag alloys are considered as potential alternatives to replace Pb-based alloys as solder materials for metallic connections under high temperatures. However, a lack of understanding regarding the effects of solidification thermal parameters (growth rate - VL, the cooling rate - Ṫ) on microstructural aspects is reported in literature. Another challenge is to improve properties and reliability. The results of the present study include the determination of the tip growth rate and the cooling rate by cooling curves recorded by thermocouples positioned along the casting length, metallography, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Vickers hardness. The entire directionally solidified Bi-1.5Ag microstructure was arranged by faceted Bi-rich dendrites surrounded by a eutectic mixture (Bi+Ag). The primary and secondary dendrite arm spacing (λ1 and λ2), the interphase spacing (λ) and the diameter of Ag-rich particles were also measured along the casting length; and experimental growth laws. Relating these microstructural features to the experimental thermal parameters are proposed.

Cooling thermal parameters and microstructure features of directionally solidified ternary Sn–Bi–(Cu,Ag) solder alloys

Low temperature soldering technology encompasses Sn–Bi based alloys as reference materials for joints since such alloys may be molten at temperatures less than 180°C. Despite the relatively high strength of these alloys, segregation problems and low ductility are recognized as potential disadvantages. Thus, for low-temperature applications, Bi–Sn eutectic or near-eutectic compositions with or without additions of alloying elements are considered interesting possibilities. In this context, additions of third elements such as Cu and Ag may be an alternative in order to reach sounder solder joints. The length scale of the phases and their proportions are known to be the most important factors affecting the final wear, mechanical and corrosions properties of ternary Sn–Bi–(Cu,Ag) alloys. In spite of this promising outlook, studies emphasizing interrelations of microstructure features and solidification thermal parameters regarding these multicomponent alloys are rare in the literature. In the present investigation Sn–Bi–(Cu,Ag) alloys were directionally solidified (DS) under transient heat flow conditions. A complete characterization is performed including experimental cooling thermal parameters, segregation (XRF), optical and scanning electron microscopies, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and length scale of the microstructural phases. Experimental growth laws relating dendritic spacings to solidification thermal parameters have been proposed with emphasis on the effects of Ag and Cu. The theoretical predictions of the Rappaz-Boettinger model are shown to be slightly above the experimental scatter of secondary dendritic arm spacings for both ternary Sn–Bi–Cu and Sn–Bi–Ag alloys examined.

A Coupled Numerical Heat Transfer in the Transient Multicycle CFD Aircraft Engine Model

The temperature distribution in a reciprocating combustion engine has an impact on its wear and thermal efficiency. Uneven material properties, varied geometry, diverse heat loads and flow conditions make it unfeasible to use a simple analytical mathematical model that covers the heat transfer. The numerical steady state heat transfer model was used to calculate the external surfaces heat transfer coefficient and to develop two transient coupled models - one for the temperature distribution and one for engine's transient in-cylinder processes, including a combustion and species transport sub-models. The methods intended to decrease a computational time for a transient temperature equilibrium were used. The paper discusses the research results on a high power air-cooled aircraft radial engine. A temperature distribution was investigated in different model regions. A lumped heat transfer model was developed for engine walls.

Solder/substrate interfacial thermal conductance and wetting angles of Bi–Ag solder alloys

Bi–Ag lead-free alloys are considered interesting alternatives to Pb-based traditional solders due to compatible melting point and strength. During soldering, the ability of a liquid alloy to flow or spread over the substrate is crucial for the formation of a metallic bond driven by the physicochemical properties of the liquid solder/solid substrate system. In addition, the wettability is intimately associated with the solder/substrate thermal conductance represented by a heat transfer coefficient, hi. In this work, three Bi–Ag alloys (hypoeutectic—1.5 wt%Ag, eutectic—2.5 wt%Ag and hypereutectic—4.0 wt%Ag) were directionally solidified under upward unsteady state heat flow conditions. Both time-dependent hi profiles and wetting behavior represented by contact angles (θ) were determined for the three alloys examined. The dependence of θ on the alloy Ag content is assessed experimentally. Also, thermal readings collected during directional solidification of the Bi 1.5, 2.5 and 4.0 wt% Ag alloys are used with a view to permitting hi versus time (t) profiles to be computed. It is shown that along a first solidification stage (t 16 s the volumetric expansion of the Bi-rich phase is shown to have a dominant role inducing a sudden increase in hi. For each alloy a couple of time-dependent hi expressions is needed to represent the entire solidification progress.