Health Services Cost Review Commission Research Articles

Maryland's Global Budget Revenue Program and Equitable Access to Esophagectomy for Esophageal Cancer

IntroductionWe evaluated equity in access to esophagectomy after Maryland's 2014 “Global Budget Revenue” (GBR) implementation, which equalizes reimbursement rates irrespective of patient insurance and employs an annual hospital revenue ceiling to incentivize reductions in unnecessary resource utilization. We hypothesized that more traditionally underserved patients would undergo surgical treatment for esophageal cancers after GBR. MethodsUsing Maryland's Health Services Cost Review Commission database, we retrospectively analyzed patient demographics, insurance statuses, inflation-adjusted hospital charges, postoperative outcomes, and discharge dispositions for esophagectomies for neoplasms between 2012 and 2018. ResultsFour hundred eighty six patients were included: 22.0% (107) pre-GBR and 78.0% (379) post-GBR. The proportion of African-American patients increased post-GBR (5.6% versus 12.9%, P = 0.035) and subsequently exhibited year-over-year increases. While not statistically significant, the proportion of Medicaid patients increased from 4.7% to 10.0% (P = 0.085). The post-GBR era also saw patients from 10 new counties, six of which were in Maryland's bottom half of counties ranked by median household income, receive operative esophageal cancer treatment without losing representation from pre-GBR counties. Patient age and sex were comparable between the two groups, and there were no significant differences in mortality or 30-day readmissions. Inflation-adjusted hospital charges and length of hospital stay did not appreciably change post-GBR, including after adjusting for age, comorbidities, and surgical approach. ConclusionsGBR increased access to esophagectomy for African-Americans, those insured by Medicaid, and those from lower socioeconomic status counties. Contrary to prior studies of outpatient and emergency room settings, we found the GBR program's goal of reduction of resource utilization and cost were not apparent in this complex surgical population.

Examining the Influence of Historical Redlining on Firearm Injuries in Current Day Baltimore, Maryland.

Firearm injuries are a common and major public health problem in Baltimore, Maryland. The city is also one of the first U.S. cities in which the 1930s discriminatory practice of redlining first emerged. This study examines the association between current day firearm injuries and residence in these historically redlined areas at a neighborhood level using zip codes. Firearm injury outcomes in patients who presented to a hospital in Maryland from 2015 to 2020 were measured from the Health Services Cost Review Commission (HSCRC) in conjunction with both geospatial data from Richmond's Digital Scholarship Lab's Mapping Inequality project and population data from the U.S. Census. A redlining score was calculated to represent the extent of redlining in each zip code. Negative binomial regression models were utilized to measure the association between neighborhood zip codes and rate of firearm injuries. Our adjusted regression model shows that for every one-unit increase of the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) redlining score, there is a 2.24-fold increase in the rate of firearm injuries (RR 2.24; 95% CI: 0.31, 1.31, p < 0.001). These findings suggest a strongassociation between historically redlined areas and population risk of firearm injury today. Further research is needed to investigate the underlying mechanisms that may contribute to this relationship, such as access to firearms or social and economic factors. Overall, our study highlights the potential impact of historical redlining policies on contemporary health outcomes in Baltimore.

Pediatric Trauma Recidivism: A Statewide Risk Factor Analysis of the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission (HSCRC)

BackgroundNational estimates suggest pediatric trauma recidivism is uncommon but are limited by short follow up and narrow ascertainment. We aimed to quantify the long-term frequency of trauma recidivism in a statewide pediatric population and identify risk factors for re-injury. MethodsThe Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission Dataset was queried for 0–19-year-old patients with emergency department or inpatient encounters for traumatic injuries between 2013 and 2019. We measured trauma recidivism by identifying patients with any subsequent presentation for a new traumatic injury. Univariate and multivariable regressions were used to estimate associations of patient and injury characteristics with any recidivism and inpatient recidivism. ResultsOf 574,472 patients with at least one injury encounter, 29.6% experienced trauma recidivism. Age ≤2 years, public insurance, and self-inflicted injuries were associated with recidivism regardless of index treatment setting. Of those with index emergency department presentations 0.06% represented with an injury requiring inpatient admission; unique risk factors for ED-to-inpatient recidivism were age >10 years (aOR 1.61), cyclist (aOR 1.31) or burn (aOR 1.39) mechanisms, child abuse (aOR 1.27), and assault (aOR 1.43). Among patients with at least one inpatient encounter, 6.3% experienced another inpatient trauma admission, 3.4% of which were fatal. Unique risk factors for inpatient-to-inpatient recidivism were firearm (aOR 2.48) and motor vehicle/transportation (aOR 1.62) mechanisms of injury (all p < 0.05). ConclusionsPediatric trauma recidivism is more common and morbid than previously estimated, and risk factors for repeat injury differ by treatment setting. Demographic and injury characteristics may help develop and target setting-specific interventions. Level of EvidenceIII (Retrospective Comparative Study)

Costs and Readmissions Associated with Type A Aortic Dissections at High- and Low-Volume Centers.

Costs and readmissions associated with type A aortic dissection repairs are not well understood. We investigated statewide readmissions, costs, and outcomes associated with the surgical management of type A aortic dissection repairs at low- and high-volume centers. We identified all adult type A aortic dissection patients who underwent operative repair in the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission's database (2012-2020). Hospitals were stratified into high- (top quartile of total repairs) or low-volume centers. Of the 249 patients included, 193 (77.5%) were treated at a high-volume center. Patients treated at high- and low-volume centers had no differences in age, sex, race, primary payer, or severity (all p > 0.5). High- compared to low-volume centers had a greater proportion of patients transferred in (71.5% vs. 17.9%, p < 0.001). High-volume centers also had longer lengths of stay (12 vs. 8 days, p < 0.001), similar inpatient mortality (13.0% vs. 16.1%, p = 0.6), and similar proportion of patients readmitted (54.9% vs. 51.8%, p = 0.7). High-volume centers had greater index admission costs ($114,859 vs. $72,090, p < 0.001) and similar readmission costs ($48,367 vs. $42,204, p = 0.5). At high-volume centers, transferred patients compared to direct admissions had greater severity of illness (p = 0.05), similar mortality (p = 0.53), and greater lengths of stay (p = 0.05). High-volume centers had a greater number of patients transferred from other institutions compared to low-volume centers. High-volume centers were associated with increased index admission resource utilization, with transfer patients having higher illness severity and greater resource utilization, yet similar mortality, compared to direct admission patients.

Association of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Deprivation With Utilization and Costs of Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Fusion.

A retrospective analysis. The aim of our study was to analyze the association of Area Deprivation Index (ADI) with the utilization and costs of elective anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) surgery. ADI, a comprehensive neighborhood-level measure of socioeconomic disadvantage, has been shown to be associated with worse perioperative outcomes in a variety of surgical settings. The Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission Database was queried to identify patients who underwent primary elective ACDF between 2013 and 2020 in the state. Patients were stratified into tertiles by ADI, from least disadvantaged (ADI1) to most disadvantaged (ADI3). The primary endpoints were ACDF utilization rates per 100,000 adults and episode-of-care total costs. Univariable and multivariable regression analyses were performed. A total of 13,362 patients (4984 inpatient and 8378 outpatient) underwent primary ACDF during the study period. In our study, there were 2,401 (17.97%) patients residing in ADI1 neighborhoods (least deprived), 5974 (44.71%) in ADI2, and 4987 (37.32%) in ADI3 (most deprived). Factors associated with increased surgical utilization were increasing ADI, outpatient surgical setting, non-Hispanic ethnicity, current tobacco use, and diagnoses of obesity and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Factors associated with lower surgical utilization were: non-white race, rurality, Medicare/Medicaid insurance status, and diagnoses of cervical disk herniation or myelopathy. Factors associated with higher costs of care were increasing ADI, older age, Black/African American race, Medicare or Medicaid insurance, former tobacco use, and diagnoses of ischemic heart disease and cervical myelopathy. Factors associated with lower costs of care were outpatient surgical setting, female sex, and diagnoses of gastroesophageal reflux disease and cervical disk herniation. Neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation is associated with increased episode-of-care costs in patients undergoing ACDF surgery. Interestingly, we found greater utilization of ACDF surgery among patients with higher ADI. 3.

Association of Race and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage with Incident Peripheral Artery Disease and Chronic Limb-threatening Ischemia

There are disparities in peripheral artery disease (PAD) outcomes according to both race and socioeconomic disadvantage separately. However, few studies have investigated the association of race and socioeconomic deprivation together with risk of PAD. We aimed to investigate the association of race and socioeconomic disadvantage with risk of incident PAD and incident chronic limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI). We included all non-Hispanic white and non-Hispanic Black adults in the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission from January 2013 through December 2019 without prevalent PAD or CLTI at their index visit. PAD and CLTI were defined by inpatient and outpatient diagnosis codes. Socioeconomic disadvantage was determined by the area deprivation index (ADI), a comprehensive measure of socioeconomic deprivation, using nine-digit zip codes. Patients living in neighborhoods with greater socioeconomic deprivation (ADI 3 and 4) were categorized as high ADI, while patients living in neighborhoods with lower socioeconomic deprivation (ADI 1 and 2) were categorized as low ADI. We estimated the cumulative incidence of PAD and CLTI and quantified hazard ratios (HR) using multivariable Cox proportional hazards models across four race and ADI groups after correcting for traditional demographic and cardiovascular risk factors. A total of 5,592,650 adult patients without PAD or CLTI at baseline (51.6% ≥65 years of age, 37.9% Black, 31.2% with high ADI) were followed for a median of 10.71 years (interquartile range, 5-31 years). The overall cumulative incidence of PAD and CLTI was 22% and 6%, respectively, and varied significantly by race and ADI (Figs 1 and 2). After adjusting for baseline differences between groups, the risk of incident PAD was highest for the Black-high ADI group (hazard ratio [HR], 1.40; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.38-1.43), followed by White-high ADI (HR, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.20-1.24) and Black-low ADI (HR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.99- 1.01) compared to White-low ADI (Table). Similarly, the risk of incident CLTI was highest for the Black-high ADI group (HR, 1.52; 95% CI, 1.48-1.57), followed by White-high ADI (HR, 1.38; 95% CI, 1.33-1.42), then Black-low ADI (HR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.11-1.17) compared to White-low ADI. Previously reported racial differences in risk of PAD and CLTI are largely explained by socioeconomic deprivation, as characterized by ADI. Adults living in areas with higher socioeconomic deprivation are at higher risk of incident PAD and CLTI than their less socioeconomically deprived counterparts.Fig 2Cumulative Incidence Function Curves of Incident CLTI in health Services Cost Review Commission Database from 2013 through 2019 Stratified by Race and ADI.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)

158 Associations Between County Level Poverty and Firearm Injuries in the State of Maryland

OBJECTIVES/GOALS: The United States is experiencing an epidemic of firearm deaths and injuries. Poverty and other socioeconomic factors have been linked to firearm injuries on the national level. The goal of this study is to examine the relationship between county level poverty and firearm injuries in the State of Maryland. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: This is a cross sectional study assessing fatal and non-fatal firearm injuries of all ages between 2018-2020 utilizing data from the State of Maryland’s Health Services Cost Review Commission. Our primary analysis will involve calculating injury and mortality rates to assess if fatal and non-fatal firearm injuries are associated with county-level poverty, defined as the percentage of the population living below the federal poverty line. Rates will be calculated by determining county level population within subgroups using the National Historical Geographical Information System database. We will also conduct regression analyses to adjust for confounding variables selected based on evidence from prior research. Some of these variables include age, sex, race, urbanicity, and the social vulnerability index. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: An abundance of prior research has demonstrated differences in firearm injury by age, sex, and race. Prior studies have also shown that poverty is associated with higher rates of firearm-related deaths among youth. Based on that foundational data, we anticipate that regression analyses will demonstrate that counties with higher poverty levels will have higher rates of fatal and non-fatal firearm injuries, even after controlling for other known risk factors. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Findings from this study will contribute to growing evidence on the role of poverty in the burden of firearm injuries and mortality. This will have policy implications regarding the allocation of public health resources and interventions aimed at reducing firearm-related injuries and deaths in Maryland.

Emergency General Surgery Procedures in Older Adults: Where You Live Matters!

Neighborhood location and its built environment are important social determinants of health that impact health outcomes. Older adults (OAs) represent the fastest growing population in the United States with many requiring emergency general surgery procedures (EGSPs). The aim of this study was to evaluate whether neighborhood location, represented by zip code, influences mortality and disposition in OAs undergoing EGSPs in Maryland. A retrospective review was undertaken of hospital encounters in the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission from 2014 to 2018 of OAs undergoing EGSPs. Older adults residing in the 50 most affluent (MANs) and 50 least affluent (LANs) neighborhoods based on zip codes were compared. Data collected included demographics, all patient-refined (APR)-severity of illness (SOI), APR-risk of mortality (ROM), Charlson Comorbidity Index, complications, mortality, and discharge to a higher level of care. Of the 8661 OAs analyzed, 2362 (27.3%) resided in MANs and 6299 (72.7%) in LANs. Older adults in LANs were more likely to undergo EGSPs, had higher APR-SOI and APR-ROM, and experienced more complications, discharge to higher level of care, and mortality. Living in LANs was independently associated with discharge to higher level of care (OR 1.56, 95% CI: 1.38-1.77, P < .001) and increased mortality (OR 1.35, 95% CI: 1.07-1.71, P = .01). Mortality and quality of life in OAs undergoing EGSPs are dependent on environmental factors likely determined by neighborhood location. These factors need to be defined and incorporated in predictive models of outcomes. Public health opportunities to improve outcomes for those who are socially disadvantaged are necessary.

The association between severe maternal morbidity and mortality and race/ethnicity with community type in Maryland.

Severe maternal morbidity and mortality are increasing in the United States with continued healthcare disparities among Non-Hispanic Black women. However, there is sparse data on the disparities of severe maternal morbidity and mortality by race/ethnicity as it relates to community type. To determine whether residing in rural communities increases the racial/ethnic disparities in severe maternal morbidity and mortality. This study is a cross-sectional analysis of women admitted for delivery from 2015 to 2020. A total of 204,140 adults who self-identified as women, were admitted for delivery, who resided in Maryland, and were between the ages 15 and 54 were included in our analysis. Community type was defined as either rural or urban. A multivariable logistic regression, which included an interaction term between race/ethnicity and community type, was used to assess the effect of community type on the relationship between race/ethnicity and severe maternal morbidity and mortality. Data were obtained from the Maryland Health Service Cost Review Commission database. The primary outcome was a composite, binary variable of severe maternal morbidity and mortality. Exposures of interest were residence in either rural or urban counties in Maryland and race/ethnicity. Our study found that after adjusting for confounders, odds of severe maternal morbidity and mortality were 65% higher in Non-Hispanic Black women (odds ratio 1.65, 95% confidence interval: 1.46-1.88, p < 0.001) and 54% higher in Non-Hispanic Asian women (odds ratio 1.54, 95% confidence interval: 1.24-1.90, p < 0.001) compared to Non-Hispanic White women. The interaction term used to determine whether community type modified the relationship between race/ethnicity and severe maternal morbidity and mortality was not statistically significant for any race/ethnicity (Non-Hispanic Black women, p = 0.60; Non-Hispanic Asian women, p = 0.91; Hispanic women, p = 0.15; Other/Unknown race/ethnicity, p = 0.54). Although our study confirmed the known disparities in maternal outcomes by race/ethnicity, we found that residing in rural communities did not increase racial/ethnic disparities.

Impact of the Maryland Global Budget Revenue Program on Lobectomies for Lung Cancer

INTRODUCTION: In 2014, Maryland introduced a “Global Budget Revenue” (GBR) program in an effort to reduce hospital costs by prospectively capping annual hospital revenue at a predetermined amount, thereby incentivizing hospitals to reduce expenditures while maintaining quality. Our objective was to investigate the impact of the GBR model on thoracic surgery outcomes. METHODS: We used the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission (HSCRC) database to retrospectively review adult patients who underwent lobectomy for primary lung cancer between 2012 and 2018. Patients were dichotomized as “pre-GBR” if they underwent lobectomy prior to 2014, and “post-GBR” if they underwent lobectomy in 2014 or later. RESULTS: Baseline demographics between the two groups were comparable, although patients in the post-GBR group were less likely to be uninsured (0.2% vs 1.1%, p < 0.01). In-hospital mortality was similar between the two groups (1.0% vs 1.5%, p = 0.20), as was 30-day readmission rate (8.2% vs 7.9%, p = 0.80). On average, patients in the post-GBR era had a shorter length of stay (5.7 days vs 6.1 days, p = 0.02), but were more likely to be discharged with home health services (23.4% vs 19.5%, p = 0.01). CONCLUSION: These results suggest successful incentivization to reduce hospital length of stay with implementation of the GBR model, without evidence of inadvertent negative consequences such as increased mortality or need for readmission. The increased use of home health services suggest a multi-disciplinary approach will be integral to reducing overall health expenditures under this model, and demonstrates promise for use of the GBR model in thoracic surgery.

Assessing the effect of COVID-19 stay-at -home orders on firearm injury in Maryland

This study sought to characterize frequency and demographic characteristics of firearm injury and penetrating trauma in Maryland over the first year of the pandemic, by comparing these characteristics to those of the three years prior to stay-at-home order issuance.Patients were identified in the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission database using ICD-10 codes for firearm injury by all intents and assaults by penetrating trauma. Cases from July 1, 2017 to March 31, 2020 (“pre-stay-at-home”) were compared to those from April 1, 2020 to March 31, 2021 (“post-stay-at-home”) using descriptive statistics.There was no significant change overall in frequency or demographics of firearm injury or penetrating trauma in the year after stay-at-home orders were issued. Youth between ages 15 and 24, overwhelmingly male, comprise a disproportionately high percentage of firearm injuries and assaults, and most penetrating trauma occurs in urban environments where Black non-Hispanic youth and children of low socioeconomic status are at high risk. Our study also found unintentional firearm injury among adults was significantly increased during the pandemic.While increased unintentional firearm injury among adults was the major significant change found in our study, the persistence of firearm injury, particularly in youth, racial and ethnic minority groups, and those in urban environments, should be deeply concerning. Stay-at-home policies did not keep youth safer from firearm injury. With continued high rates of firearm injury and the national debate over how to prevent these incidents, increased education and comprehensive strategies for prevention are needed.

Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia After Cardiac Surgery—A Statewide Review of Health Care Utilization

BackgroundDespite its severe consequences, clinical and economic impacts of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) after cardiac operations have not been well characterized. This study assessed statewide incidence, outcomes, and resource consumption associated with HIT after cardiac operations. MethodsThis was a retrospective investigation of cardiac surgery patients using the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission’s database from 2012 to 2020. Health care costs, utilization, and outcomes for those who experienced postoperative HIT were compared with propensity score–matched controls. ResultsOf 33 583 cardiac surgery patients, 184 (0.55%) were diagnosed with postoperative HIT. Compared with non-HIT patients, HIT patients were significantly more likely to be in the oldest age group (>80 years; P < .001) and to have greater severity of illness at admission (P < .001). HIT was associated with a longer hospitalization (21 vs 7 days; P < .001), greater mortality (13.6% vs 2.3%; P < .001), and greater hospital charges ($123 160 vs $45 303; P < .001), even after propensity score matching. Readmission rates were not significantly different, however, and readmission hospital charges did not significantly differ between HIT and non-HIT patients. ConclusionsIn addition to worse outcomes, HIT was associated with higher costs during index admissions but not during readmissions of cardiac surgery patients. Strategies to minimize HIT could yield better outcomes and reduced costs, particularly relevant for health care systems seeking improved value-based care while reducing unnecessary hospitalizations.

Medicare in 2030 Irretrievably Broken

Medicare in 2030 Irretrievably Broken

Racial-ethnic disparities in potentially preventable complications after cesarean delivery in Maryland: an observational cohort study

BackgroundPotentially preventable complications are monitored as part of the Maryland Hospital Acquired Conditions Program and are used to adjust hospital reimbursement. Few studies have evaluated racial-ethnic disparities in potentially preventable complications.Our study objective was to explore whether racial-ethnic disparities in potentially preventable complications after Cesarean delivery exist in Maryland.MethodsWe performed a retrospective observational cohort study using data from the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission database. All patients having Cesarean delivery, who had race-ethnicity data between fiscal years 2016 and 2020 were included. Multivariable logistic regression modeling was performed to estimate risk-adjusted odds of having a potentially preventable complication in patients of different race-ethnicity.ResultsThere were 101,608 patients who had Cesarean delivery in 33 hospitals during the study period and met study inclusion criteria. Among them, 1,772 patients (1.7%), experienced at least one potentially preventable complication. Patients who had a potentially preventable complication were older, had higher admission severity of illness, and had more government insurance. They also had more chronic hypertension and pre-eclampsia (both P<0.001). Median length of hospital stay was longer in patients who had a potentially preventable complications (4 days vs. 3 days, P<0.001) and median hospital charges were approximately $4,600 dollars higher, (P<0.001). The odds of having a potential preventable complication differed significantly by race-ethnicity group (P=0.05). Hispanic patients and Non-Hispanic Black patients had higher risk-adjusted odds of having a potentially preventable complication compared to Non-Hispanic White patients, OR=1.26 (95% CI=1.05 to 1.52) and OR=1.17 (95% CI=1.03 to 1.33) respectively.ConclusionsIn Maryland a small percentage of patients undergoing Cesarean delivery experienced a potentially preventable complication with Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Black patients disproportionately impacted. Continued efforts are needed to reduce potentially preventable complications and obstetric disparities in Maryland.

Impact of Clinician Linkage on Unequal Access to High-Volume Hospitals for Colorectal Cancer Surgery.

Understanding drivers of persistent surgical disparities remains an important area of cancer care delivery and policy. The degree to which clinician linkages contribute to disparities in access to quality colorectal cancer surgery is unknown. Using hospital surgical volume as a proxy for quality, the study team evaluated how clinician linkages impact access to colorectal cancer surgery at high-volume hospitals (HVHs). Maryland's Health Services Cost Review Commission was used to evaluate 6,909 patients who underwent colon or rectal cancer operations from 2013 to 2018. Two linkages based on patient sharing were examined separately for colon and rectal cancer surgery: (1) from primary care clinicians to specialists (gastroenterologist or medical oncologist) and (2) from specialists to surgeons (general or colorectal). A referral link was defined as 9 or more shared patients between 2 clinicians. Adjusted regression models examined associations between referral links and odds of receiving colon or rectal cancer operations at HVHs. The cohort included 5,645 colon and 1,264 rectal cancer patients across 52 hospitals. Every additional referral link between a primary care clinician and a specialist connected to a HVH was associated with a 12% and 14% increased likelihood of receiving colon (odds ratio [OR] 1.12, CI 1.07 to 1.17) and rectal (OR 1.14, CI 1.08 to 1.20]) cancer operations at a HVH, respectively. Every additional referral link between a specialist and a surgeon at a HVH was associated with at least a 25% increased likelihood of receiving colon (OR 1.28, CI 1.20 to 1.36) and rectal (OR 1.25, CI 1.15 to 1.36) cancer operation at a HVH. Patients of clinicians with linkages to HVHs are more likely to have their colorectal cancer operations at these hospitals. These findings suggest that policy interventions targeting clinician relationships are an important step in providing equitable surgical care.

Cost Differences Between Teaching and Nonteaching Hospitals for Older Adults Requiring Emergency General Surgery Procedures in the State of Maryland

Older adults (OAs; ≥ 65 years) comprise a growing population in the United States and are anticipated to require an increasing number of emergency general surgery procedures (EGSPs). The aims of this study were to identify the frequency of EGSPs and compare cost of care in OAs managed at teaching hospitals (THs) vs nonteaching hospitals (NTHs). A retrospective review of data from the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission database from 2009 to 2018 for OAs undergoing EGSPs was undertaken. Data collected included demographics, all patient-refined (APR)-severity of illness (SOI), APR-risk of mortality (ROM), Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI), EGSPs (partial colectomy (PC), small bowel resection, cholecystectomy, operative management of peptic ulcers, lysis of adhesions, appendectomy, and laparotomy, categorized hospital charges, length of stay (LOS), and mortality. Of the 55,401 OAs undergoing EGSPs in this study, 28,575 (51.6%) were treated at THs and 26,826 (48.4%) at NTHs. OAs at THs presented with greater APR-ROM (major 25.6% vs 24.9%, extreme 22.6% vs 22.0%, P=.01), and CCI (3.1±3 vs 2.7±2.8, P<.001) compared to NTHs. Lysis of adhesions, cholecystectomy, and PC comprised the overall most common EGSPs. Older adults at THs incurred comparatively higher median hospital charges for every EGSP due to increased room charges and LOS. Mortality was higher at THs (6.13% vs 5.33%, P<.001). While acuity of illness appears similar, cost of undergoing EGSPs for OAs is higher in THs vs NTHs due to increased LOS. Future work is warranted to determine and mitigate factors that increase LOS at THs.

Emergency General Surgery Procedures and Cost of Care for Older Adults in the State of Maryland.

Older adults (OAs) ≥ 65years of age, representing the fastest growing segment in the United States, are anticipated to require a greater percentage of emergency general surgery procedures (EGSPs) with an associated increase in health care costs. The aims of this study were to identify the frequency of EGSP and charges incurred by OA compared to their younger counterparts in the state of Maryland. A retrospective review of the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission from 2009 to 2018 was undertaken. Patients undergoing urgent or emergent ESGP were divided into 2 groups (18-64 years and ≥65 years). Data collected included demographics, APR-severity of illness (SOI), APR-risk of mortality (ROM), the EGSP (partial colectomy [PC], small bowel resection [SBR], cholecystectomy, operative management of peptic ulcer disease, lysis of adhesions, appendectomy, and laparotomy), length of stay (LOS), and hospital charges. P-values (P < .05) were significant. Of the 181,283 patients included in the study, 55,401 (38.1%) were ≥65years of age. Older adults presented with greater APR-SOI (major 37.7% vs 21.3%, extreme 5.2% vs 9.3%), greater APR-ROM (major 25.3% vs 8.7%, extreme 22.3% vs 5.3%), underwent PC (24.5% vs 10.9%) and SBR (12.8% vs 7.0%) more frequently, and incurred significantly higher median hospital charges for every EGSP, consistently between 2009 and 2018 due to increased LOS and complications when compared to those ≤65years of age. These findings stress the need for validated frailty indices and quality improvement initiatives focused on the care of OAs in emergency general surgery to maximize outcomes and optimize cost.

Cost-effectiveness of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) surveillance in Maryland.

We analyzed the efficacy, cost, and cost-effectiveness of predictive decision-support systems based on surveillance interventions to reduce the spread of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE). We developed a computational model that included patient movement between acute-care hospitals (ACHs), long-term care facilities (LTCFs), and communities to simulate the transmission and epidemiology of CRE. A comparative cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted on several surveillance strategies to detect asymptomatic CRE colonization, which included screening in ICUs at select or all hospitals, a statewide registry, or a combination of hospital screening and a statewide registry. We investigated 51 ACHs, 222 LTCFs, and skilled nursing facilities, and 464 ZIP codes in the state of Maryland. The model was informed using 2013-2016 patient-mix data from the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission. This model included all patients that were admitted to an ACH. On average, the implementation of a statewide CRE registry reduced annual CRE infections by 6.3% (18.8 cases). Policies of screening in select or all ICUs without a statewide registry had no significant impact on the incidence of CRE infections. Predictive algorithms, which identified any high-risk patient, reduced colonization incidence by an average of 1.2% (3.7 cases) without a registry and 7.0% (20.9 cases) with a registry. Implementation of the registry was estimated to save $572,000 statewide in averted infections per year. Although hospital-level surveillance provided minimal reductions in CRE infections, regional coordination with a statewide registry of CRE patients reduced infections and was cost-effective.

Potential Financial Effects on Hospitals of the Removal of Common Orthopaedic and Spinal Procedures From Medicare's "Inpatient-Only" List: A Comparison of the Medicare Fee-for-service Payment Model Versus Maryland's Global Budget Revenue Model.

When treating Medicare beneficiaries, orthopaedic surgeons must follow Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) policies regarding whether to perform surgical treatments under inpatient or outpatient status. Recently, most orthopaedic and spinal procedures were removed from the CMS's "inpatient-only" list (IPOL). We investigated differences in hospital payments under the Diagnosis Related Group (DRG)/Ambulatory Payment Classification (APC) system when common orthopaedic/spinal procedures are done under outpatient rather than inpatient status. We compared these differences under the DRG/APC model with differences in payments to Maryland hospitals, which are paid under the alternative Global Budget Revenue model. We used the CMS Inpatient Pricer and CMS Addendum B to retrieve the mean duration-of-stay data, estimated DRG (inpatient) payment, and APC (outpatient) payment for eight common orthopaedic/spinal procedures for four non-Maryland hospitals (2 urban academic hospitals and 2 neighboring community hospitals). We retrieved Maryland's Health Services Cost Review Commission hospital rates for the same eight procedures done under inpatient or outpatient status to estimate hospital charges for a Maryland urban academic hospital and a neighboring community hospital. Among the four non-Maryland hospitals, estimated differences in payment for hospitalizations under inpatient versus outpatient status for common orthopaedic/spinal procedures with a mean duration of stay of <2 days, whose status would be most subject to change from inpatient to outpatient by its removal from the IPOL, ranged from $19 to $13,042. For the two Maryland hospitals, differences in outpatient versus inpatient payment for these same procedures ranged from $182 to $1,273. Non-Maryland hospitals receive widely different CMS payments for common orthopaedic/spinal procedures based on a change in hospitalization status (inpatient to outpatient) prompted by the procedure being removed from the IPOL. The Maryland global budget revenue mitigates most of the effect of hospitalization status on hospital payment and may serve as a guide toward DRG/APC payment reassessment. N/A.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Elective Inpatient Surgical Admissions: Evidence From Maryland

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic led to large-scale cancellation and deferral of elective surgeries. We quantified volume declines, and subsequent recoveries, across all hospitals in Maryland. Materials and MethodsData on elective inpatient surgical volumes were assembled from the Maryland Health Service Cost Review Commission for years 2019-2020. The data covered all hospitals in the state. We compared the volume of elective inpatient surgeries in the second (Q2) and fourth quarters (Q4) of 2020 to those same quarters in 2019. Analysis was stratified by patient, hospital, and service characteristics. ResultsSurgical volumes were 55.8% lower in 2020 Q2 than in 2019 Q2. Differences were largest for orthopedic surgeries (74.3% decline), those on Medicare (61.4%), and in urban hospitals (57.3%). By 2020 Q4, volumes for most service lines were within 15% of volumes in 2019 Q4. Orthopedic surgery remained most affected (44.5% below levels in 2019 Q4) and Plastic Surgery (21.9% lower). ConclusionsCOVID-19 led to large volume declines across hospitals in Maryland followed by a partial recovery. We observed large variability, particularly across service lines. These results can help contextualize case-specific experiences and inform research studying potential health effects of these delays and cancellations.