The beginning of the Early Iron Age is characterised by a considerable decrease in evidence of the deposition of hoards of metal artefacts in many parts of Central Europe. This phenomenon is usually explained as a result of the social and ideological changes that were taking place in the territory of the newly forming Hallstatt culture. Until recently, east Bohemia was believed to be one of the regions in which the custom of depositing metal hoards was completely abandoned. However, newly obtained data show the opposite. In east Bohemia, we currently have evidence of five such assemblages. The article is primarily focused on the culture- chronological evaluation of the contents of these hoards. However, issues related to their find circumstances, topography, and their relationship to the cultural landscape are also discussed. Selected results are subsequently compared on a basic level in the broader Central European context. While some of the east Bohemian hoards date to Ha D, it cannot be ruled out that the deposition of others may have already occurred during Ha C. Compared to the surrounding areas with evidence of the deposition of hoards, the higher frequency of hoards composed of iron tools and/or weapons is a striking phenomenon. It is not yet clear whether its causes are to be sought in methodological, chronological or rather cultural- geographical aspects. Some of the individual artefacts from the hoards illustrate long- distance contacts and show that east Bohemia was involved in a wide network of links with areas to the west, east, and north. The repeatedly observed deposition of hoards on the boundaries of the settled areas is probably related to the symbolic aspects of territoriality of the Early Iron Age communities.

The Krumlov Forest (Czechia) revealed one of the largest chert mining fields in Europe, dated from the Mesolithic to the Hallstatt period. The largest shafts of the Late Lengyel culture were located on a slope below a re-deposited boulder. Shaft No. 4 yielded two skeletons of females; the lower one had a newborn placed on her breasts. Both females were found to be the shortest of the then population as a whole; they were weak, diseased and poorly fed during their childhood. By contrast, as adults they were fed with meat and carried out heavy work, which is corroborated by marked muscle attachments and vertebral degeneration. Genetic analysis proved that both females were relatives. In order to complete the story of these women, the conclusions mentioned were supplemented with an anthropological reconstruction of their appearance.

The article publishes archaeological complexes of the type of dwellings, that originate from the settlement of Kartal II (the early Hallstatt horizon). A total of 8 (9?) such complexes were opened, mainly on the territory of the suburb of the hillfort (site "North-East"). They can all be divided into three groups. The first one consists of 5 dwellings, sunk into the mainland (no. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). The second one consists of 2 dwellings of the so-called ground type (1/2004 and 9/2011), but, in fact, buried in humusized soil to the level of the mainland. The third one consists of a single dugout type dwelling (no. 10). With the exception of dugout no. 10, remnants of open and closed hearths were found in all other complexes. Practically no traces of load-bearing structures were found. Analogies with residential complexes of the Kartal II settlement are known in synchronous cultures of both neighboring and more remote regions. However, this may not be complete, but only partial similarity in some parameters and features. The ceramic complex of dwellings indicates that the settlement of Kartal II belongs to the horizon of Hallstatt cultures with incised ceramics (Sihleanu - Tămăoani - Hansca-Holercani).

The article presents the results of the archaeological investigations conducted at Podgorica. They revealed a settlement considered part of the Podgorica-Dragomelj ‘twin settlement’ that was located at a former streambed and extended across more than 2 ha. The clustered buildings in its centre and the metallurgical-casting activities moved to the periphery indicate a deliberate organisation of the living and work spaces of its inhabitants. The area was then reused in the Early Iron Age, when it served as a burial ground in the Hallstatt period.

Abstract Pollen analytical studies of three sediment cores from the mesotrophic lake of Egerbakta (47.935°N, 20.291°E, 280 m a.s.l.), located in the Bükk Mountains in NE Hungary revealed large amounts of Cannabis sativa pollen (> 90%), a clear sign of hemp retting. The increase in Cannabis pollen occurred around the formation and settlement of Egerbakta village (ca. 1260 ce) and continued until the mid-20th century. To ascertain the first appearance and the start of cultivation of the crop in Hungary and Eastern-Central Europe, we collected several well-dated pollen records from the NEOTOMA palaeoecological database, and plotted Cannabis-type pollen relative frequencies on maps. The results of the analyses showed the earliest evidence of hemp retting at 100 bce in Eastern Hungary (Kokad Mire). Furthermore, we revealed that hemp was locally present and likely cultivated for the first time in the Middle Copper Age Hunyadihalom Culture, around 3450 bce in eastern Hungary, while in western Hungary at 3150 bce. We argue that its cultivation is connectable with the regular intrusion of the pastoral groups from the Pontic steppe zone to the Great Hungarian Plain at this time who brought in the tradition of hemp cultivation. These findings fit well and postdate by ~1,000 year earlier evidence for hemp cultivation in Bulgaria by the Eneolithic Gumelniţa/Varna culture (bce). Evidence of intensified hemp cultivation in western Hungary was traced to the Iron Age Hallstatt period (ca. 1200–450 bce), and it is likely connectable to their interaction with Scythians/Celts.

Abstract In the Sobolów area, three hoards of the Hallstatt period were discovered, containing ornaments, waste and scrap of tin–lead–bronze alloy, with iron objects in close proximity, possibly indicating the existence of a foundry workshop. They were accompanied by glass beads, an indicator of the settlement of the Lusatian EB‐Ha Culture, found together with amber beads, and fragments of composite bracelets made of narrow ‘scapes’ tightly clamped on a wooden hoop. Macro‐ and light microscopy chemical composition analysis by X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy and, for the glass bead, scanning electron microscopy with X‐ray microanalysis were used.

ABSTRACTUtilizing imaging techniques opens new avenues for diagnosing paleopathological findings in archaeological human skeletal remains. This study presents a case of severe perforating trauma on the left ischial bone of an adult male Celtic elite burial from the late Hallstatt period, discovered within the central chamber of a burial mound near the Heuneburg hilltop settlement in southwest Germany. Despite the gravity of the injury, evidence of complete healing suggests meticulous medical intervention and intensive healthcare, indicative of the elevated social status accorded to elites during this period. Employing computer tomographic scanning, we created a three‐dimensional virtual negative imprint of the lesion and identified it as likely resulting from an arrowhead. Comparative analysis of the imprint with archaeological arrowheads typical for the era and region suggests a probable association with warfare rather than hunting purposes. This case study contributes to our understanding of protohistoric medical treatment practices and warfare techniques prevalent during the Hallstatt period.

Relative vs Absolute Chronology Regarding the Scythian Horizon in Transylvania: The Necropolis of Sâncrai-Dâlma lui Candin (Alba County) Abstract. The present research explores the timeframe of the so-called “Hallstatt plateau” chronological horizon, from the perspective of the data provided by the material culture (grave goods) identified in the necropolis at Sâncrai-Dâlma lui Candin, corroborated with 14C data from seven samples taken from grave inhumations. Other 14C data from Transylvanian archaeological sites (Simeria, Gligorești-Holoame and Vlaha-Pad) also provide a chronology included in the “Hallstatt plateau.” Following these investigations related to both relative and absolute chronology, a more complete general picture of the necropolis dated to the first Iron Age from Sâncrai-Dâlma lui Candin was obtained in the timeframe belonging to the horizon of the Scythian group that penetrated Transylvania during the Hallstatt period.

This paper discusses the preliminary results of research on a newly discovered Early Iron Age defensive structure in southern Wielkopolska [Great Poland]. So far, the scope of work on the site at Rogaczewo Wielkie, Kościan District, has been limited to a comprehensive analysis of archival material, LiDAR data, surface research and a small survey trench. The obtained results of radiocarbon dating make it possible to include the Rogaczewo settlement in the catalogue of Wielkopolska fortified settlements of the Hallstatt period. The research, which will be continued, provide an excellent example of model cooperation between archaeological circles and institutions and enthusiasts who are not professionally involved in the protection of archaeological cultural heritage.

Enclosed rectangular farmsteads from the Hallstatt period in Central Europe are often cast as the seats of high-status farmers, whose land and social standing could be inherited and consolidated. Excavations at Landshut-Hascherkeller in Bavaria reveal the developmental trajectory of one such site through the stratigraphic disentanglement of its numerous ditches. Here, the authors argue that the coalescence of two rectangular farmsteads into a larger settlement complex at Hascherkeller reflects the union of neighbouring families and the resultant massing of status. The article situates this process in a segmented social system that counterpoints the typified Hallstatt hierarchy, suggesting that two social structures coexisted in the Hallstatt culture.

The Chronology of the Hallstatt Period in Moravia. Impact of the Wagon Graves for Synchronisation of East and West Hallstatt Cultures

140 Years of Research on the Hallstatt Period Burial Site of Frög in Carinthia/Austria – and Now Some New Data

Not Lost in Time. Organic Remains from the Hallstatt Period Cemetery in Domasław (PL)

Cremation Burial Ground from Hurbanovo in the Context of the Development of the Eastern Hallstatt Culture

Archaeological data confirm the widespread use of horse tack throughout the North European Bronze Age and the succeeding Hallstatt period in an inventory that included metal cheekpieces, phalerae, rein-knobs and other horse-related accessories. Similar usage has been assumed in the region of northern Poland, which has also furnished evidence for the use of horse gear accessories made of antler. This paper reports the results of traceological, isotopic and experimental research on three antler cheekpieces found at the Early Iron Age stronghold of Gzin in northern Poland and relates them further with archaeological and ethnographic patterns of horse exploitation. The results indicate that the artefacts from Gzin have rare comparanda and are isotopically consistent with the δ18Ow range of the site location, which can both be taken as evidence of their local origin. Moreover, traceological and experimental evidence from this study places the function and use of the analysed objects into a new light, undermining their use for horseback riding and suggesting that they were employed as cheekpiece coverings. Combined with the ethnographic record, ceramic iconography and archaeolinguistics, our findings fuel a discussion of deer valorisation during the Lusatian period in Poland, showing that the cheekpieces from Gzin may have served as elements of deer headgear.

Unique ceremonial vessels such as rhyta, kernoi and pseudokernoi were discovered in a cemetery from the Early Iron Age in Domasław (Poland). The appearance of such vessels proves that the societies of the Hallstatt culture adopted cultural ideas, feasting and drinking practises and offerings from the Mediterranean world. GC-MS analyses were carried out on five vessels and compared with pottery from the Domasław cemetery (74 samples) and the nearby settlement of Milejowice (46 samples). The investigations show that the examined vessels probably contained ceremonial drinks and liquids used for offerings and libations during funeral ceremonies.

Abstract During excavations carried out in 2023 at the cemetery of the Lusatian culture in Dąbrowa, site 2, Wieluń County, an urnless cremation burial was discovered (Object 24), which is dated generally to the Hallstatt period. Burnt human bones were scattered throughout the object, which form a relatively compact cluster in the central part of the grave. Ceramic fragments from various vessels were found in the fill of the grave cavity. Metal objects, both bronze and iron, showed signs of being smoldered in the fire. This fosters the conclusion that they had been burned with the deceased on the pyre and placed in the grave together with burned human bones. At the same time, such a state of preservation of the grave offerings made it impossible to specify the dating of the tomb. Within the grave, a fragment of an iron plate was found, on which mineralized remains of fabric were preserved. Technological analysis showed that it was a half-basket weave fabric of a very high quality, made of thin z-single yarn (0.25–0.30 mm and 0.40–0.50 mm) and of surprisingly high thread count (32–34/12–14 threads per cm). In the basin of the Vistula and the Oder rivers, none of the fabrics discovered so far had similar parameters. On the other hand, textiles from the main canters of weaving production at the time, such as the Hallstatt culture and the Scandinavian area, showed similar characteristics, but only in rare examples. This highlights the importance of the weaving product presented here. It is difficult to answer conclusively whether we are dealing in this case with an imported object or one produced in a local weaving workshop, although much points to the first option. Given the context of the find and the accompanying offerings, it can be assumed that the fabric belonged to a person of a higher social status. The local community’s custom of accumulating and then depositing imported items of quality into graves also makes such a hypothesis plausible. On the other hand, certain foreign patterns were adopted and creatively developed in local craft workshops of the Lusatian Culture. Most likely, involvement in long-distance trade routes allowed this society to achieve a high position in the aforementioned exchange. It was important to settle and control areas located in the basin of the upper Warta and Prosna rivers, i. e., on the southern borderlands of central Poland. It was here, through Silesia, that foreign patterns flowed in, which were then transmitted further along the Warta river basin in the northern direction, towards the “Lusatian interior”. The communication route created for the Baltic amber trade played an important role here. Finds of this raw material were recorded both in the Hallstatt circle, in areas of northern Italy, and present-day Slovenia.

The burial ground at Mitterkirchen belongs to the Early Iron Age, respectively, to the Hallstatt culture. A remarkable find from Mitterkirchen is approximately 3,000 buttons that were attached to a magnificent coat. Five of these buttons were provided for nondestructive material examinations using computed tomography (CT). Two of these buttons could be examined by metallography, light optical microscope (LOM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and X-ray fluorescence examination (XRF). Based on the results of the investigation, it can be assumed that the bronze buttons were manufactured by a casting process. The bronze alloys are very different, which suggests the use of various starting materials including recycled copper alloys. The microstructure of the bronzes is uniform and, depending on their compositions, contains precipitates like Pb and the intermetallic phase Cu41Sn11. The corrosion layers exhibit a pronounced Sn enrichment and contain malachite.

Clay vessels have a wide variety of functions in social activities in the Hallstatt period. In addition to food storage and processing, they were used for ritual purposes and as funerary vessels. The paper presents the results of archaeological and chromatographic studies of 31 vases from two different Hallstatt culture sites in lower Silesia (Poland). The investigations included vessels fragments from the Domasław cemetery and from the Milejowice settlement. The chromatographic analyses focused on fatty acids and biomarkers and made it possible to identify the most likely sources of substances they came into contact with during use. The c-means and hierarchical cluster analyses showed that grave vessels differed from settlement ceramics. Thus, conclusions on the diverse vessel functions could be made.

Abstract A partially destroyed burial ground from the Hallstatt period in the area of Mitterkirchen in Upper Austria was archaeologically investigated. The graves are dated to the Hallstatt C period corresponding to the 8th/7th century BC. Two triangular-headed nails and two lamellar “Buckel” (domed bronze plates) made of Sn-bronze were available for material investigations. One of each was subjected to metallographic examinations. The triangular-headed nail’s bronze contains about 15 wt. %Sn. The dendritic cast structure and the eutectoid phase Cu41Sn11 are clearly visible. What is noticeable is that a Cu41Sn11 layer formed in some areas of the surface. The lamellar Buckel’s microstructure is recrystallized and exhibits only a few deformation twins. Its bronze contains about 13 wt. %Sn. Hence, only very little Cu41Sn11 is present. Elongated Cu2S precipitates indicate that the initial sheet was manufactured by fine forging.