Guerrilla Warfare Research Articles

A critical reflection on force protection

ABSTRACT Western armed forces have increasingly adopted “force protection” measures to avoid casualties during irregular warfare and peace-support operations. When similar protection measures were introduced in the humanitarian sector to safeguard aid workers, humanitarian action researchers criticised the broader implications of these security measures. Using their findings, it is possible to reflect critically on force protection in a military context. First, force protection may shift risks to vulnerable others, such as less-protected allies, or the local population. Second, force protection may directly upset power relations within the mission’s specific context. Third, force protection results in a deterioration of security intelligence. Fourth, force protection inhibits the development of empathy for allies, local populations, and victims. Fifth, force protection harms soldiers’ morale by exacerbating boredom. This paper concludes that armed forces would do well to assess the various adverse effects of force protection measures.

Guerilla Pedagogy: Revaluating Knowledge Mobilization in Research-Creation and Sustaining Art in Conflict Zones

This article focusses on the exploration of avenues of dissemination within research-creation methodology – and whether the pedagogical boundaries that research-creation attempts at dismantling within research and practice (especially with respect to film and media) are sustained when the project reaches the dissemination stage. Much like guerilla warfare, where smaller bands of rebels and fighters attack and take on an enemy seemingly much bigger in power than themselves, I view guerilla pedagogy as a methodology of teaching, creating, and disseminating knowledge and art that challenges the confines of corporatized neoliberal universities and hypocritical geopolitical processes which restrict the flow of knowledge in spaces of conflict zones, and fundamentally subverts pre-conceived ideas of the roles of the pedagogue and the student. Through understanding the critical nature of research-creation in decolonizing the production of knowledge, this article explores the necessity of decolonizing prevailing methods of knowledge mobilization. To that end, we try to understand what decolonized knowledge mobilization could look like within research-creation and as research-creation itself. This evaluation happens through studying guerilla pedagogy both as a way of knowledge production in research as well as a method of knowledge mobilization within research-creation. This is done through the extensive academic work conducted on guerilla techniques in different aspects of academia, pedagogy, and activism, as well as through an experiential account of my fieldwork in Kashmir. Research-creation has the potential to facilitate the processes of guerilla pedagogy, creatively evolving it for different political and epistemological circumstances – catering it to the audience and students who require it the most in the way they need it the most. As Weems mentions, “our task is to engage the world’s subaltern in places where they speak, unheard.”

How Iran aligned militias seized Iraq: irregular warfare, lawfare and regime change

ABSTRACT Militia groups are a major tool of Iranian influence in Iraq. Over the past decade, these Iranian aligned militia groups have worked to capture Iraqi state institutions. Today, militia state capture has advanced in sophistication and breadth to such a degree that it has become extraordinarily difficult to disentangle illicit militia activity from that of the Iraqi state institutions and political parties. This paper argues that though the militias are fundamentally military actors, often conducting activities clearly identifiable as irregular warfare, their most impactful actions came through the masterful deployment of non-military activities, especially lawfare combined with elite and institutional capture (most notably, through parts of the Iraqi judiciary). The paper argues that these non-kinetic activities should be seen as part of a broad and effective irregular warfare strategy deployed in Iraq, guided by Iran, and potentially replicable in other contexts by U.S. adversaries.

Neurofeminism as epistemological guerrilla

The scientific establishment maintains a persistent belief that postulates the existence of sexual difference as an essential quality, that is, as a natural essence. This postulate further asserts that the brain is the most appropriate organ for investigating this essence. The advancement of neuroscience, coupled with the advent of neuroimaging technologies and the significant investment in brain research since the late 20th century, has generated considerable expectations in the scientific community and the general public regarding the prospects for neuroscientific research. Such circumstances may, on occasion, impede the appropriate advancement and consolidation of knowledge. A considerable number of scientific groups, laboratories, universities, research centres, private companies, large publishing groups and publishing platforms are engaged in an endeavour to unravel the great enigma of the human brain. The pursuit of sexual difference is one of the most sought-after objectives in this field of study. A number of scientists from various backgrounds have cautioned against the potential pitfalls of this approach. In this paper, I propose a critical epistemology that employs a vigilant and ongoing dialogue against the essentialism of sexual difference. I refer to this as epistemological guerrilla warfare. In this article, I present the example of neurofeminism as an instance of epistemological guerrilla warfare. The aim of this paper is to undertake a critical examination of a body of scientific research in the field of neuroscience through the use of this specific example.

Fragmented frontiers: three approaches to understanding irregular warfare

ABSTRACT This article surveys current thinking, both academic and doctrinal, on the subject of irregular warfare. It argues that from a western perspective the debate has essentially resulted in three competing forms of understanding, what this paper terms the maximal, traditional, and competition-disruption models. Conceptually, all have certain strengths but also a number of highly significant weaknesses. It nevertheless proposes that the last of these, particularly when articulated as a form of ‘strategic disruption’, offers the most coherent vision of irregular warfare. Even then, significant gaps in reasoning still exist. Ultimately, the ability of western thinkers and doctrine writers to agree a common understanding of irregular warfare remains an inherently fragile endeavor.

The embodied writing of Deolinda Rodrigues’s diary: a counternarrative to Angola’s liberation and post-independence discourses

During Angola’s struggle for liberation, Deolinda Rodrigues emerged as a pivotal figure within the MPLA’s guerrilla warfare efforts. Her life was tragically cut short in 1967 when she was captured by a rival liberation faction. Nearly four decades later, in 2003, her brother, Roberto de Almeida, published her personal journal, Diário de um exílio sem regresso. Rodrigues engages in an “embodied writing” within her diary, reflecting her effort to forge a new revolutionary identity for participation in the struggle. Highlighting the document’s historical significance, this paper argues that the diary offers a unique perspective on the formation of women’s revolutionary identities within oppressive, male-dominated wartime contexts and serves as a counternarrative to dominant accounts of Angola’s liberation struggles. Furthermore, this article explores how the diary sheds light on persistent gender dynamics in postcolonial contexts, providing insights relevant not only to Angola but also to broader Portuguese-speaking African nations.

BCA: Besiege and Conquer Algorithm

This paper introduces a bio-inspired meta-heuristic algorithm, the Besiege and Conquer Algorithm (BCA), developed to tackle complex and high-dimensional optimization problems. Drawing inspiration from the concept of symmetry and guerrilla warfare strategies, the BCA incorporates four core components: besiege, conquer, balance, and feedback. The besiege strategy strengthens exploration, while the conquer strategy enhances exploitation. Balance and feedback mechanisms maintain a dynamic equilibrium between these capabilities, ensuring robust optimization performance. The algorithm’s effectiveness is validated through benchmark test functions, demonstrating superior results in comparison with existing methods, supported by Friedman rankings and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Beyond theoretical and experimental validation, the BCA showcases its real-world relevance through applications in engineering design and classification problems, addressing practical challenges. These results underline the algorithm’s strong exploration, exploitation, and convergence capabilities and its potential to contribute meaningfully to diverse real-world domains.

Některé vojenské aspekty aplikace mezinárodního humanitárního práva v prostředí současných ozbrojených konfliktů

For an understanding of the Law of Armed Conflict development is important a good knowledge about military aspects. The two current very important topics are irregular warfare and the revolution in military technologies. The guerrilla warfare, which is typical for the Fourth generation of modem warfare is based on completely different style of warfare compare to symmetric style of warfare. Another military aspect, creating new questions for LOAC application, are new technologies, especially autonomic weapon systems and digital battlefield. Generally we have to say, that LOAC react to slowly on development of tactics and military technologies.

Protecting civilians in a data-driven and digitalized battlespace: toward a baseline humanitarian technology infrastructure

This article examines the realities of modern day warfare, including a rising trend in hybrid threats and irregular warfare which employ emerging technologies supported by digital and data-driven processes. The way in which these technologies become applied generates a widened battlefield and leads to a greater number of civilians being caught up in conflict. Humanitarian groups mandated to protect civilians have adapted their approaches to the use of new emerging technologies. However, the lack of international consensus on the use of data, the public and private nature of the actors involved in conflict, the transnational aspects of the widened battlefield, and the heightened security risks in the conflict space pose enormous challenges for the protection of civilians agenda. Based on the dual-usage aspect of emerging technologies, the challenges associated with regulation and the need for those affected by conflict to demonstrate resilience toward, and knowledge of, digital media literacy, this paper proposes the development of guidance for a "minimum basic technology infrastructure" which is supported by technology, regulation, and public awareness and education

Weapons of the Weak: Technological Change, Guerrilla Firepower, and Counterinsurgency Outcomes

What explains counterinsurgency outcomes? Existing scholarship points to characteristics and strategies of incumbents and insurgents but neglects the role of insurgents’ weapons. Some studies discuss the effects of the firepower of insurgents relative to incumbents. Focusing on relative firepower, however, is problematic given the asymmetric nature of guerrilla warfare, with insurgents eschewing decisive engagements where incumbents would bring to bear their material superiority. We turn the spotlight, instead, on guerrilla firepower, i.e., insurgents’ absolute ability to inflict casualties on incumbents using small arms in hit-and-run attacks. We argue that technological innovations dating to the mid-19th century sowed the seeds for cumulative increases in lethality of insurgents' small arms – the standard tools of guerrilla warfare – over the following 150 years, enhancing tactical effectiveness of hit-and-run attacks and thus insurgents’ prospects of strategic success. Statistical analysis of novel data on guerrilla firepower in counterinsurgency campaigns from 1800 to 2005 corroborates our argument.

Logistics of British counterinsurgency during the Indian Rebellion: 1857–1859

ABSTRACT In the summer of 1857, the Bengal Army mutinied against the East India Company (EIC). Simultaneously, a civil rebellion erupted in north India. The Indian civil and military mutineers are clubbed together as rebels. The rebels conducted battles, sieges, and guerrilla warfare against the EIC. This article focuses on the logistics of British counterinsurgency between 1857 and 1859. The British won the “battle of logistics” because they had the resources of a global maritime state and superior industrial technology. Besides greater financial and technological resources, managerial innovations and use of Indian resources gave the British victory over the rebels.

Naval Guerilla: Wilhelm Raabe’s Novel ‘The Black Galley’ and the Aesthetics of the Submarine

This article presents an early example of submarine literature in the nineteenth century by reading Wilhelm Raabe’s realist novel The Black Galley (1861) as an innovative form of naval war literature. The novel’s historical depiction of the naval guerilla tactics of the so-called Watergeuzen during the Eighty Years War is similar to later description of submarine guerilla tactics in the First World War. More so, the novel establishes a link to the ‘general fleet movement’ of the nineteenth century nationalism in Germany. Nevertheless, this article argues that Raabe’s popular novel cannot be reduced to mere naval propaganda. The text unfolds an ambivalent aesthetics of naval guerilla warfare, in which violence and victory, the brutal reality of war and its mythological depiction are intertwined.

Presence is never just presence: Sea-level escalation and administrative control in the South China Sea

This article explores the relationship between the escalation process and coercive effects achieved by the Chinese Maritime Militia (CMM) in the People’s Republic of China’s (PRC) maritime irregular warfare campaign. A comparative case study examines two cases in the South China Sea in 2023: the Second Thomas Shoal blockade and the Iroquois Reef transformation. The case-study data were mainly collected during field research in Japan and the Philippines in September 2023. The findings indicate that the PRC gradually realizes its political objective of administrative control because the CMM encounters no significant sea-level escalation and, thus, no strategic escalation.

Drone swarms – as an innovative tool to carry out irregular warfare

Drone swarms – as an innovative tool to carry out irregular warfare

How Iran Aligned Militias Seized Iraq: Irregular Warfare, Lawfare and Regime Change

How Iran Aligned Militias Seized Iraq: Irregular Warfare, Lawfare and Regime Change

1905년 이후 노원지역 의병운동의 전개와 성격

The Nowon area was a central location for the righteous army (Uibyeong) warfare in the northeastern Gyeonggi region during the Jeongmi Righteous Army Movement in 1907. In particular, it served as a strategic point for advancing into Seoul and was a hub for raising military funds and procuring supplies to reorganize the righteous army units. The reason Nowon could serve as a base for the righteous army was due to its socioeconomic background, supported by transportation hubs like nowonyeog(蘆原驛) and nuwonjeom(樓院店). nowonyeog(蘆原驛), governed by the Ministry of Military Affairs(兵曹), was a critical waypoint on the road to hamgyeongdo(咸鏡道). As a result, horse breeding was important in this area, which led to the development of the iron forging industry for making horseshoe nails. This industry enabled the righteous army to repair and manufacture weapons. Furthermore, nowonyeog(蘆原驛) and nuwonjeom(樓院店) were central hubs of commerce, making them places where goods and information converged. These conditions made it easier for the righteous army to gather intelligence, secure military funds, and procure supplies, leading to an influx of righteous army forces into the Nowon area. Additionally, the mountainous terrain of Suraksan and Buramsan in the Nowon area was advantageous for guerrilla warfare. The presence of temples provided spaces where the righteous army could gather and operate. These factors made the Nowon area a favorable base for the righteous army. After the failure of the 13-province Changeuigun’s the Seoul advancing operation, the Nowon area became a rallying point for the righteous army. Notable righteous army units active in the Nowon area included those led by Lee Eunchan and Kang Gidong. In summary, the Nowon area became a major base for the righteous army’s warfare in the northeastern Gyeonggi region due to its significance as a transportation and commercial hub supported by nowonyeog(蘆原驛) and nuwonjeom(樓院店), the development of the iron forging industry for horseshoe nails, the advantageous mountainous terrain of Buramsan and Suraksan for guerrilla warfare, and its accessibility for raising military funds and procuring supplies.

병인양요 이후 洋亂 대응책 고찰 - 『戎書撮要』를 중심으로

This paper analyzes the strategies outlined in 『Yungseo Chwaryo(戎書撮要)』, a military treatise compiled in response to potential Western invasions after the Byeongin Yangyo(丙寅洋擾). The Byeongin Yangyo(丙寅洋擾) was the third foreign invasion Korea had faced, marking the first time the country encountered Western military power. Following this experience, the Korean court sought to enhance the defenses around Seoul and strengthen the military system. As part of these efforts, 『Yongseo Chwaryo』was compiled under the support of Shin Heon(申櫶). This text is distinct in that it frequently cites Qing(淸) dynasty military manuals instead of relying solely on the 『Jixiao Xinshu(紀效新書)』 and incorporates updated battle tactics. The response model formulated in this treatise focuses on selecting and training local militia, adopting a mountain fortress defense strategy, and engaging in small-scale guerrilla warfare against Western ships. The local militia was selected for courage and bravery, with an emphasis on realistic martial training and camp formation to build resilience. Stationing in mountain fortresses allowed for strategic defense by leveraging difficult terrain and fostering internal unity through a strong sense of community within the fortress. Refugees were required to provide a certain amount of food, ensuring sustenance during confrontations, and were encouraged to remain steadfast in their positions rather than flee. Regarding Western naval confrontations, the treatise covers weaponry from the 『Mubei Ji(武備志)』and tactics by Lin Zexu(林則徐) from the 『Haiguo Tuzhi(海國圖志)』. It suggests attacking the bow and stern of Western ships, where their guns were not positioned, and introduces guerrilla tactics on land involving war carts, multi-shot firearms, and poison bombs. Notably, the text’s attempt to locally produce percussion caps was quite progressive for the era, reflecting an advanced understanding of contemporary military needs.

War, innovations and cultural transfers in East-Central Europe: The Army of Transylvania in the age of transition from voivodeship to principality (second half of the 16th century)

The scope of this article is to offer an overview on the process of early modern military innovation and adaptation in Transylvania, with a particular emphasis on foreign influences. A former province within the Hungarian Kingdom, Transylvania was gradually transformed during the second half of the sixteenth century into a distinct state, vassal of the Ottoman Empire. The political context had a significant impact on shaping the military organization of the emerging polity, situated in a borderland area dominated by the Ottoman-Habsburg rivalry. The armed forces of the Transylvanian rulers were marked by enduring medieval traditions and customs, especially in terms of recruitment, mobilization and organization. However, some innovations, coming from neighbouring war cultures, were introduced and adapted during the decades following the Ottoman conquest of Buda (1541). The evolution of recruitment methods, the increasing importance of light cavalry and irregular warfare and the evolution of infantry between western and oriental models are some of the most important topics approached in my analysis.

Assessing Jean Lartéguy’s The Centurions for the past, present, and future of irregular warfare

ABSTRACT Jean Lartéguy’s The Centurions (1960) became a must-read among coalition forces during the war on terror. The novel follows a French airborne battalion as it counters insurgencies in Vietnam and Algeria. It addresses the strategic and tactical issues associated with counterinsurgency as well as the psychological costs. What lessons were drawn from Lartéguy, and what does the novel tell us for the future? In addition to a close reading of the text, I engage in a genealogical analysis of the novel’s citations to determine how informal forms of doctrine filter through organizational cultures like the military and subtly guide policy.

Looking into the Future: the Spread and Realization of Guerrilla Warfare Tactics in Lithuania in 1944–1953

The post-war guerrilla warfare in Lithuania was nothing new since the traditions of the guerrilla movement dated back to the 1919–1923 battles for independence and confrontations with Polish forces in the neutral territory. In the interwar period, the Lithuanian military authorities did not discard guerrilla warfare tactics, and this form of warfare was essentially legitimised by the Hague Convention on Warfare of 1907. In 1935, upon the militarisation of the Lithuanian Riflemen’s Union and its integration in the regular army structures, the training of riflemen for the eventual occupation of the country’s territory by the enemy was rather intensive. The ideas of partisan warfare were promoted by means of the periodical Trimitas (The Trumpet) and incorporated in the documents of the General Staff, which provided for the action of partisans in small units on well-known territory by using light armament and setting the objective of continuous assaults on the enemy, thereby demoralising him. In 1940, following the Soviet occupation and liquidation of the Lithuanian Riflemen’s Union, the structure, after its development for two decades, remained, and the personal contacts of riflemen were quite intensive. A network of riflemen units, the locally operating unit serving as the main tactical and administrative entity of the union, covered the entire territory of Lithuania and was a suitable basis for the organisation of post-war guerrilla warfare, while the former riflemen and officers acted as organisers and leaders of the resistance movement. The above facts allow us to conclude that the guerrilla warfare waged against the Soviet forces of repressions and military units in Lithuania in 1944 to 1953 was influenced by pre-war Lithuanian military plans, while the warfare itself was a legitimate defence of the nation’s sovereignty with respect to international military law and should be regarded as pre-planned resistance to eventual occupation.