Growth Of Quinoa Research Articles

Molecular characteristics and expression pattern of the FAR1 gene during spike sprouting in quinoa

FAR-RED IMPAIRED RESPONSE 1 (FAR1) is a class of transposase-derived transcription factors that play a very important role in the initiation of the photosensitive pigment A (phyA) signaling pathway. Despite their importance, the understanding of the function of FAR1 genes in quinoa is still limited, especially regarding how they affect the spike sprouting response. Quinoa has gained global attention in recent years for its health benefits and potential for sustainable agriculture. In our study, the CqFAR1 gene set in quinoa was characterized using HMMER (PF03101) and BLAST analyses, and 87 genes were identified. The 87 CqFAR1 genes were systematically classified into five groups that showed a high degree of conservation in gene structure and motif composition. Tissue expression profiles of the CqFAR1 gene indicated that the CqFAR1 gene plays a key role throughout the growth and development of quinoa, especially at mid (leaf) and end (spike) stages. By RT-qPCR analysis, we observed significant differences in the expression of the CqFAR1 gene at different developmental stages. Notably, the CqFAR1 gene showed significant expression enhancement at the early stage of quinoa spike sprouting. The results are useful for understanding the role of the CqFAR1 gene in quinoa growth and development and provide theoretical support for quinoa breeding.

Growth and Economic Return of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) under Different Plant Spacing and Fertility Conditions

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a native of the Andes that has sparked a worldwide interest due to its unique nutritional value. Quinoa seed have an orthodox magnificent nutritional food quality and were also called “the mother grain”. To achieve optimal crop yield, farmers must meticulously manage various factors, ensuring a balanced approach to fertility levels, irrigation and pest control. It is crucial for farmers to find a delicate balance in achieving specific nutritional and yield targets. The current investigation was conducted in kharif 2022, with genotype “EC507742” at Research and Extension Centre, Gaja, College of Forestry, Ranichauri, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India. The experiment comprised of two factors viz., geometry (S): S1- 20 x10 cm, S2- 30 x 10 cm and S3- 40 x 10 cm in main plot and fertility levels (F): F1- Control, F2- 75% NPKS, F3- 100% NPKS and F4- 125% NPKS in sub plot with total of 12 treatment combinations that were evaluated in split plot design with three replications. The data was analysed using OPSTAT with figures from SAS (proc glm). Among the geometries, S2 (30 x 10 cm) excelled in field conditions and economics relative to others. Among different fertility levels, F3 (100% NPKS) demonstrated the greatest growth, yield characteristics, yield, and higher returns for quinoa compared to other fertility levels. The interactions between geometry and fertility levels were also found significant for growth, yield attributes and yield with higher in S2F3. Thus, it can be concluded that using the recommended fertilizer (100% NPKS) with the ideal spacing of 30 x 10 cm improves growth, yield and profitability of Quinoa.

Integrative Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analysis Reveals Quinoa Leaf Response Mechanisms to Different Phosphorus Concentrations During Filling Stage

Quinoa is an annual self-pollinating plant rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, saponins, and amino acids; its protein balance closely aligns with the ideal recommendation set by the Food and Agriculture Organization. Therefore, quinoa is considered the most suitable “all-nutrient food”. Phosphorus fertilization plays an important role in restricting the growth and development of quinoa; however, the effects of phosphorus fertilizer on quinoa growth remain unclear. Therefore, we conducted metabolome and transcriptome analyses on quinoa leaves during the filling stage, subjecting plants to different doses of phosphorus fertilizer. Overall, phosphorus treatment exerted a significant impact on the phenotypic characteristics of quinoa. Specifically, through a combined analysis of ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry and transcriptome analysis, we identified the alteration and regulation of specific metabolites and genes within flavonoid biosynthesis pathways; this comprehensive evaluation helped elucidate the response mechanism of quinoa leaves during the grouting stage under various phosphorus conditions. Ultimately, the results of this study provide a reference for the selection of quinoa cultivars that exhibit tolerance to low- or high-phosphorus stress; additionally, we offer a theoretical basis for the rational application of phosphorus fertilizer and the enhancement of phosphorus utilization efficiency.

Differential growth, morphological characters, and yield of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) genotypes grown on salt degraded soil

AbstractQuinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a high‐value halophytic crop, is a promising candidate to ensure food security in the scenario of increasing soil salinization due to climate change. In a 2‐year field study (during 2018–2019 and 2019–2020), 18 quinoa genotypes of different origins (Q‐4, Q‐6, Q‐9, Q‐7, Q11, Q‐15, Q‐22, Q‐24, Q‐27, Q‐45, Q‐50, Q‐51, Q‐52, Q‐76, Q‐81, Q82, Q‐124, and Q‐126) were grown at two different locations (salt‐affected and normal soil having electrical conductivity (EC) of 16.24 and 1.76 dS m−1, respectively). Morphological, physiological, and yield parameters were recorded to assess the impact of salinity on different genotypes of quinoa. All the tested genotypes performed better in normal soil (37% more yield) than salt‐affected soils. Under salt‐affected conditions, differential salt tolerance responses of quinoa genotypes were observed. Among tested genotypes, Q‐7 achieved the highest chlorophyll content index, biological mass (7905 kg ha−1), and seed yield (1916 kg ha−1) under salt‐affected conditions, it was followed by Q‐81. Salt stress caused up to 94% reduction of seed yield in the salt‐sensitive genotype (Q‐11), while the salt‐tolerant genotype (Q‐81) showed only 15% reduction in seed yield. Morphological characteristics of quinoa genotypes were differently influenced by salt stress. The salt‐tolerant accessions Q‐7 and Q‐81 exhibited similar morphological characteristics. Based on the findings of this study, salt‐tolerant quinoa genotypes can be successfully grown in salt‐degraded soils (with EC ≤ 16.24 dS m−1) in extreme winter seasons with arid climatic conditions.

Physiological traits, crop growth, and grain quality of quinoa in response to deficit irrigation and planting methods

Climate change has become a concern, emphasizing the need for the development of crops tolerant to drought. Therefore, this study is designed to explore the physiological characteristics of quinoa that enable it to thrive under drought and other extreme stress conditions by investigating the combined effects of irrigation water levels (100%, 75%, and 50% of quinoa's water requirements, WR as I1, I2 and I3) and different planting methods (basin, on-ridge, and in-furrow as P1, P2 and P3) on quinoa's physiological traits and gas exchange. Results showed that quinoa’s yield is lowest with on-ridge planting and highest in the in-furrow planting method. Notably, the seed protein concentrations in I2 and I3 did not significantly differ but they were 25% higher than those obtained in I1, which highlighted the possibility of using a more effective irrigation method without compromising the seed quality. On the other hand, protein yield (PY) was lowest in P2 (mean of I1 and I2 as 257 kg ha−1) and highest in P3 (mean of I1 and I2 as 394 kg ha−1, 53% higher). Interestingly, PY values were not significantly different in I1 and I2, but they were lower significantly in I3 by 28%, 27% and 20% in P1, P2, and P3, respectively. Essential plant characteristics including plant height, stem diameter, and panicle number were 6.1–16.7%, 6.4–24.5%, and 18.4–36.5% lower, respectively, in I2 and I3 than those in I1. The highest Leaf Area Index (LAI) value (5.34) was recorded in the in-furrow planting and I1, while the lowest value was observed in the on-ridge planting method and I3 (3.47). In I3, leaf temperature increased by an average of 2.5–3 oC, particularly during the anthesis stage. The results also showed that at a similar leaf water potential (LWP) higher yield and dry matter were obtained in the in-furrow planting compared to those obtained in the basin and on-ridge planting methods. The highest stomatal conductance (gs) value was observed within the in-furrow planting method and full irrigation (I1P3), while the lowest values were obtained in the on-ridge and 50%WR (I3P2). Finally, photosynthesis rate (An) reduction with diminishing LWP was mild, providing insights into quinoa’s adaptability to drought. In conclusion, considering the thorough evaluation of all the measured parameters, the study suggests using the in-furrow planting method with a 75%WR as the best approach for growing quinoa in arid and semi-arid regions to enhance production and resource efficiency.

Effects of Nitrogen Accumulation, Transportation, and Grain Nutritional Quality and Advances in Fungal Endophyte Research in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Plants.

This study aims to understand the influence of nitrogen accumulation, fungal endophyte, yield, nitrogen use efficiency, and grain nutritional quality parameters on the yield of quinoa in some areas of China. The endophytic microbial community in plants plays a crucial role in plant growth, development, and health, especially in quinoa plants under different nitrogen fertilizer levels. The results from the present study indicated that appropriate nitrogen application significantly enhanced the nitrogen accumulation and yield of quinoa grains during maturity, increasing by 34.54-42.18% and 14.59-30.71%, respectively. Concurrently, protein content, amylose, total starch, ash, and fat content also increased, with respective growth rates of 1.15-18.18%, 30.74-42.53%, 6.40-12.40%, 1.94-21.94%, and 5.32-22.22%. Our constructed interaction network of bacterial and fungal communities revealed that bacteria outnumbered fungi significantly, and most of them exhibited synergistic interactions. The moderate increase in N150 was beneficial for increasing quinoa yield, achieving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of over 20%. The N210 was increased, and both the yield and NUE significantly decreased. This study provides novel insights into the impact of nitrogen fertilizer on quinoa growth and microbial communities, which are crucial for achieving agricultural sustainable development.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles: An Influential Element in Alleviating Salt Stress in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa L. Cv Atlas)

Climate change has intensified abiotic stresses, notably salinity, detrimentally affecting crop yield. To counter these effects, nanomaterials have emerged as a promising tool to mitigate the adverse impacts on plant growth and development. Specifically, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) have demonstrated efficacy in facilitating a gradual release of zinc, thus enhancing its bioavailability to plants. With the goal of ensuring sustainable plant production, our aim was to examine how green-synthesized ZnO-NPs influence the seedling growth of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa L. Cv Atlas) under conditions of salinity stress. To induce salt stress, solutions with three different NaCl concentrations (0, 100, and 200 mM) were prepared. Additionally, Zn and ZnO-NPs were administered at four different concentrations (0, 50, 100, and 200 ppm). In this study, plant height (cm), plant weight (g), plant diameter (mm), chlorophyll content (SPAD), K/Na value, Ca/Na value, antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD: EU g−1 leaf; CAT: EU g−1 leaf; POD: EU g−1 leaf), H2O2 (mmol kg−1), MDA (nmol g−1 DW), proline (µg g−1 FW), and sucrose (g L−1), content parameters were measured. XRD analysis confirmed the crystalline structure of ZnO nanoparticles with identified planes. Salinity stress significantly reduced plant metrics and altered ion ratios, while increasing oxidative stress indicators and osmolytes. Conversely, Zn and ZnO-NPs mitigated these effects, reducing oxidative damage and enhancing enzyme activities. This supports Zn’s role in limiting salinity uptake and improving physiological responses in quinoa seedlings, suggesting a promising strategy for enhancing crop resilience. Overall, this study underscores nanomaterials’ potential in sustainable agriculture and stress management.

Enhancing quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) growth in saline environments through salt-tolerant rhizobacteria from halophyte biotope.

The use of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in agriculture is one of the most promising approaches to improve plants' growth under salt stress and to support sustainable agriculture under climate change. In this context, our goal was to grow and enhance quinoa growth using native rhizobacteria that can withstand salt stress. To achieve this objective, we isolated rhizobacteria from three saline localities in a semi-arid region in Tunisia, which are characterized by different halophyte species and tested their plant growth-promoting (PGP) activities. Then, we inoculated quinoa seedlings cultivated on 300 mM NaCl with the three most efficient rhizobacteria. A positive effect of the three-salt tolerant rhizobacteria on the growth of quinoa under salinity was observed. In fact, the results of principal component analysis indicated that the inoculation of quinoa by salt-tolerant PGPR under high salinity had a prominent beneficial effect on various growth and physiological parameters of stressed plant, such as the biomass production, the roots length, the secondary roots number, proline content and photosynthesis activities. Three rhizobacteria were utilized in this investigation, and the molecular identification revealed that strain 1 is related to the Bacillus inaquosorum species, strain 2 to Bacillus thuringiensis species and strain 3 to Bacillus proteolyticus species. We can conclude that the saline soil, especially the halophytic rhizosphere, is a potential source of salt-tolerant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (ST-PGPR), which stimulate the growth of quinoa and improve its tolerance to salinity.

Effect of exogenous γ-aminobutyric acid on physiological property, antioxidant activity, and cadmium uptake of quinoa seedlings under cadmium stress.

Increasing cadmium (Cd) pollution has negative effects on quinoa growth and production. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) confers plants with stress resistance to heavy metals; however, the mechanism remains unclear. We explored the effects of exogenous GABA on the physiological characteristics, antioxidant capacity, and Cd accumulation of quinoa seedlings under Cd stress using hydroponic experiments. Partial least-squares regression was used to identify key physical and chemical indices of seedlings affecting Cd accumulation. Compared with those of the CK group, exposure to 10 and 25 µmol·L-1 Cd significantly reduced the photosynthetic pigment contents, photosynthesis, and biomass accumulation of quinoa seedlings; resulted in shorter and thicker roots; decreased the length of the lateral roots; decreased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxide (POD); and increased H2O2 and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents. Exogenous GABA reduced the Cd content in the stem/leaves and roots of quinoa seedlings under Cd stress by 13.22-21.63% and 7.92-28.32%, decreased Cd accumulation by 5.37-6.71% and 1.91-4.09%, decreased the H2O2 content by 38.21-47.46% and 45.81-55.73%, and decreased the MDA content by 37.65-48.12% and 29.87-32.51%, respectively. GABA addition increased the SOD and POD activities in the roots by 2.78-5.61% and 13.81-18.33%, respectively, under Cd stress. Thus, exogenous GABA can reduce the content and accumulation of Cd in quinoa seedlings by improving the photosynthetic characteristics and antioxidant enzyme activity and reducing the degree of lipid peroxidation in the cell membrane to alleviate the toxic effect of Cd stress on seedling growth.

Identifying Core Genes Related to Low-Temperature Stress Resistance in Quinoa Seedlings Based on WGCNA.

Quinoa is a nutritious crop that is tolerant to extreme environmental conditions; however, low-temperature stress can affect quinoa growth, development, and quality. Considering the lack of molecular research on quinoa seedlings under low-temperature stress, we utilized a Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis to construct weighted gene co-expression networks associated with physiological indices and metabolites related to low-temperature stress resistance based on transcriptomic data. We screened 11 co-expression modules closely related to low-temperature stress resistance and selected 12 core genes from the two modules that showed the highest associations with the target traits. Following the functional annotation of these genes to determine the key biological processes and metabolic pathways involved in low-temperature stress, we identified four important transcription factors involved in resistance to low-temperature stress: gene-LOC110731664, gene-LOC110736639, gene-LOC110684437, and gene-LOC110720903. These results provide insights into the molecular genetic mechanism of quinoa under low-temperature stress and can be used to breed lines with tolerance to low-temperature stress.

The effects of intercropping and plant density on the growth and yield characteristics of quinoa and guar

The effects of intercropping and plant density on the growth and yield characteristics of quinoa and guar

Deficit Irrigation-Based Improvement in Growth and Yield of Quinoa in the Northwestern Arid Region in China

Given the current global water scarcity issues, which particularly affect arid regions such as northwestern China, it is crucial to find crop planting patterns that result in efficient water resource utilization. Quinoa, as a drought-resistant and highly nutritious crop, has garnered significant attention from agricultural researchers in recent years. From 2019 to 2020, a series of experimental studies were conducted under non-mulching drip irrigation conditions to investigate the growth adaptability and the response to different irrigation levels of quinoa in an arid region in northwestern China. A comparative analysis of quinoa’s dry matter accumulation, yield, thousand-grain weight, harvest index, and water use efficiency under varying irrigation levels revealed that increasing irrigation significantly enhanced quinoa’s dry matter accumulation and yield. By optimizing the irrigation strategies, we found that the water-saving practice of initiating moderate irrigation in the sensitive water-demanding stages (flowering and fruiting) of quinoa increased the yield. The experiment results showed that, in 2020, the optimal irrigation amount was 3675 m3·ha−1 during a 14-day irrigation cycle, meeting quinoa’s growth requirements while improving water resource utilization efficiency. This study not only provides a scientific basis for the efficient cultivation of quinoa in the arid regions of northwestern China, but also offers new insights into and technical support for agricultural water resource management in the region, contributing to the sustainable development of agriculture in arid areas.

Effects of Different N Fertilizer Doses on Phenology, Photosynthetic Fluorescence, and Yield of Quinoa

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is gaining recognition as a pseudocereal due to its nutritional attributes and adaptability to challenging conditions and marginal soils. However, understanding the optimal fertilization for quinoa growth remains a challenge. This study investigates the effects of nitrogen fertilization (0, 90, 120, and 150 kg using urea) on quinoa phenology, growth, and photosynthesis in the Loess Plateau region of China, a critical area facing soil erosion and ecological degradation. The results showed that nitrogen fertilization significantly influenced quinoa phenology, prompting early flowering and shorter growth at an optimum rate of 120 kg ha−1. Nitrogen application enhanced growth traits such as plant height, stem diameter, and chlorophyll content, particularly at the heading and flowering stages. Photosynthesis-related parameters, including net photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and intercellular CO2 concentration, were affected by nitrogen application, with higher values observed at 120 kg ha−1. Non-photochemical quenching was significantly increased by nitrogen application, indicating the efficient dissipation of excess energy. The study demonstrated a positive correlation between grain yield and growth traits, photosynthesis-related traits, and chlorophyll content. In conclusion, quinoa yield could be significantly improved at the Loess Plateau region under rainfed conditions by an optimal nitrogen fertilizer rate of 120 kg ha−1, which reduces the growth duration while increasing photosynthesis traits.

Quinoa growth and yield performance under salinity stress in arid West Texas

AbstractCrops such as quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) that are both salinity and drought‐tolerant and with high seed value are needed to sustain agriculture in arid Far West Texas facing dual threat of freshwater scarcity and soil salinization. However, quinoa's growth and yield performance under arid conditions of Far West Texas has not been studied previously. This study evaluated growth and yield of a salt‐tolerant quinoa genotype under greenhouse conditions using a completely randomized experimental design with irrigation water salinity as the main factor having five different levels (freshwater, 5, 10, 15, and 20 dS m−1). Plant parameters (plant height, leaf SPAD, leaf tissue carbon, and nitrogen concentrations) and seed yield were measured for two growing seasons. Soil quality (salinity and sodicity) changes were also determined for the same time. Seed yields ranged between 747 and 6065 kg ha−1 across 2 years, indicating significant effects of water salinity. However, these yields were comparable to those reported in the literature. Increasing water salinity significantly affected all growth parameters with leaf C and N decreasing by an average of 20%, whereas reductions in plant height reached a high of 60% at 20 dS m−1. Similar reductions in leaf chlorophyll content were found with increasing water salinity. Soil salinity and sodicity significantly increased over time with irrigation water salinity. Importantly, we observed that quinoa has a much higher soil salinity threshold (∼12 dS m−1) above which yields declined rapidly. Higher salt tolerance threshold of quinoa makes it an alternative economically viable crop for the Trans‐Pecos Texas region.

Redox priming could be an appropriate technique to minimize drought-induced adversities in quinoa.

The exogenous use of the redox compound (H2O2) plays a significant role in abiotic stress tolerance. The present study investigated various H2O2 application methods (seed priming, foliar spray, and surface irrigation) with varying concentration levels (0 mM, 5 mM, 10 mM, 15 mM, 40 mM, 80 mM, and 160 mM) to evaluate the efficiency of supplying exogenous H2O2 to quinoa under water-deficit conditions. Drought stress reduced quinoa growth and yield by perturbing morphological traits, leading to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species and increased electrolyte leakage. Although all studied modes of H2O2 application improved quinoa performance, surface irrigation was found to be sensitive, causing oxidative damage in the present study. Seed priming showed a prominent increase in plant height due to profound emergence indexes compared to other modes under drought conditions. Strikingly, seed priming followed by foliar spray improved drought tolerance in quinoa and showed higher grain yield compared to surface irrigations. This increase in the yield performance of quinoa was attributed to improvements in total chlorophyll (37%), leaf relative water content (RWC; 20%), superoxide dismutase (SOD; 35%), peroxidase (97%), polyphenol oxidase (60%), and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (58%) activities, and the accumulation of glycine betaine (96%), total soluble protein (TSP; 17%), proline contents (35%), and the highest reduction in leaf malondialdehyde contents (MDA; 36%) under drought stress. PCA analysis indicated that physio-biochemical traits (proline, SOD, TSP, total chlorophyll, MSI, and RWC) were strongly positively correlated with grain yield, and their contribution was much higher in redox priming than other application methods. In conclusion, exogenous H2O2 application, preferably redox priming, could be chosen to decrease drought-induced performance and yield losses in quinoa.

Silicon Combined with Trichoderma harzianum and Organic Matter as an Environmental Friendly Strategy for Mitigating Salt Stress in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)

Silicon is known to be an effective salt stress attenuator for crops, and evaluating its application effectiveness in combination with other salt stress attenuators is essential for crops and soils. This work aimed to assess whether applying organic matter (OM) and Trichoderma (T) potentiates silicon (Si) in mitigating soil salinization and promoting quinoa growth under salt stress. Quinoa plants were grown in pots under saline irrigation (3.12 dS m−1) and subjected to the following treatments: quinoa only; quinoa + Si; quinoa + Si + OM; quinoa + Si + T; and quinoa + Si + OM + T, at two levels of soil moisture—30 and 80% of the available water content (AWC). Sixty days after transplanting, soil and quinoa plants were collected from the pots. At 80% AWC, Si + OM and Si + OM + T promoted the highest fresh mass for quinoa—301.54 and 247.26 g, respectively. Si + OM + T significantly mitigated saline parameters (EC = 9.82 dS m−1; ESP = 32.27%). Si combined with OM and T was the most effective way to attenuate salt stress in quinoa and soil salinization and promote a more sustainable way to manage saline irrigation in semiarid regions.

Quinoa growth and yield, soil water dynamics, root growth, and water use indicators in response to deficit irrigation and planting methods

To address the growing issue of scarce water in the arid and semi-arid areas, it is essential to investigate the potential of drought tolerant crops and implement promising farm management strategies to improve water productivity and yield production. Therefore, a split plot experiment to investigate how different irrigation levels (I-1:100% water requirement (WR), I-2:75%WR, and I-3: 50%WR) and planting methods (P-1: basin, P-2: on-ridge, and, P-3: in-furrow) interact and affect quinoa water use, yield, root growth, and water productivity in southern Iran over two growing seasons. The results showed high seasonal crop evapotranspiration (993–1030 mm) in I-1 as a result of the high advection ratio (α), which ranged from 1.02 to 1.46 from the early vegetative to the seed filling stages. The P-3 increased transpiration rate by 4.5% and 7.7%, and decreased soil evaporation by 17% and 29% compared to P-1 and P-2, respectively. Single (Kc) and dual (Kcb + Ke) crop coefficients varied between 0.41 and 1.38 over the two growing seasons. Grain yield in P-3 were 25%, 34%, and 44% higher compared to P-1 and P-2 under I-1, I-2 and I-3, respectively. The study revealed that nearly 67% and 80% of the total root dry matter was in the 0–30 cm and 0–60 cm of the soil profile in all experimental treatments, respectively. Regardless of irrigation treatment, root length density (RLD) and root mass density (RMD) were found to be 18.9% and 15.7% lower in P-1’s top 0–20 cm of the soil profile than those obtained in P-2 and P-3, respectively. Analyses showed that the increased root length in deeper soil layers contributed to higher soil water uptake, and consequently higher crop water productivity. In addition, root-to-shoot ratio increased as the amount of the applied irrigation water was decreased. Quinoa exhibited the highest acclimation to water stress in P-3 based on water stress sensitivity coefficients (λi) and yield response factor (Ky) values. Crop water productivity (WPC) and irrigation water productivity (WPI) for grain yield varied between 0.17 and 0.28 kg m−3. In conclusion, in terms of grain yield, shoot and root dry matter and water productivity, I-2 and P-3 (75% WR irrigation level and in-furrow planting method treatment) is recommended as the optimum water and planting management strategy for quinoa cultivation in the study area as a measure to address water scarcity and food sustainability. Still, to improve yield and irrigation water efficiency, the effect of soil management practices such as mulching and organic amendments on soil water retention and nutrient availability for quinoa should be investigated.

Plant growth of Chenopodium quinoa (Willd) is better when growing with kin than with non-kin regardless of soil nutrient conditions

Plant growth of Chenopodium quinoa (Willd) is better when growing with kin than with non-kin regardless of soil nutrient conditions

Vermicompost-based amendment compensated for the reducing effect of water stress on growth and yield of quinoa by improving soil moisture characteristic

Vermicompost-based amendment compensated for the reducing effect of water stress on growth and yield of quinoa by improving soil moisture characteristic

Molecular Characterization and Expression Analysis of YABBY Genes in Chenopodium quinoa.

Plant-specific YABBY transcription factors play an important role in lateral organ development and abiotic stress responses. However, the functions of the YABBY genes in quinoa remain elusive. In this study, twelve YABBY (CqYAB) genes were identified in the quinoa genome, and they were distributed on nine chromosomes. They were classified into FIL/YAB3, YAB2, YAB5, INO, and CRC clades. All CqYAB genes consist of six or seven exons, and their proteins contain both N-terminal C2C2 zinc finger motifs and C-terminal YABBY domains. Ninety-three cis-regulatory elements were revealed in CqYAB gene promoters, and they were divided into six groups, such as cis-elements involved in light response, hormone response, development, and stress response. Six CqYAB genes were significantly upregulated by salt stress, while one was downregulated. Nine CqYAB genes were upregulated under drought stress, whereas six CqYAB genes were downregulated under cadmium treatment. Tissue expression profiles showed that nine CqYAB genes were expressed in seedlings, leaves, and flowers, seven in seeds, and two specifically in flowers, but no CqYAB expression was detected in roots. Furthermore, CqYAB4 could rescue the ino mutant phenotype in Arabidopsis but not CqYAB10, a paralog of CqYAB4, indicative of functional conservation and divergence among these YABBY genes. Taken together, these results lay a foundation for further functional analysis of CqYAB genes in quinoa growth, development, and abiotic stress responses.