India hosts a remarkable diversity of mushroom species, many of which possess significant nutritional and therapeutic potential. These fungi are rich in bioactive secondary metabolites such as polysaccharides, notably β-glucans with immunomodulatory properties, as well as phenolic compounds, ergothioneine, and selenium, all of which contribute to antioxidant defense, immune regulation, and the prevention of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disorders and cancer. This review compiles and critically analyzes existing literature on edible and medicinal mushrooms distributed across various ecological regions of India, including Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus ostreatus, Grifola frondosa, Cordyceps militaris and Lentinus edodes. It emphasizes their bioactive constituents and associated anticancer, antiviral, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, and neuroprotective activities. The review highlights the region’s extensive fungal diversity and identifies key research gaps, particularly in pharmacological evaluation, clinical validation, and the scalable cultivation of promising species. The findings emphasize the need for standardized methodologies, in-depth mechanistic studies, and human clinical trials to translate these bioactive compounds into viable nutraceutical and therapeutic applications.

Olive oil additive enhances hyphal growth and triterpenes accumulation in submerged fermentation of Grifola frondosa.

Identification and in silico analysis of novel antioxidant peptides from Grifola frondosa hydrolysates: Cytoprotective effects in H2O2-induced Caco-2 cells

All through human history, mushrooms have been valued as nutritional foods. They have been extensively used as nutraceuticals and as a source for the generation of pharmaceutical-grade medicines to treat a wide variety of diseases, including cancer. During the past more than 3 decades, numerous scientific studies on medicinal mushrooms have been conducted in Japan, China, Korea, the USA, Russia, the UK, Pakistan, Turkiye, as well as other countries. A limited number of highly purified compounds derived from some of these mushrooms are now used as pharmaceutical-grade products in medicine-especially for cancer treatment. The most well-known medicinal mushrooms worldwide, both edible and inedible, include Ganoderma lucidum, Lentinus edodes, Phellinus linteus, Porio cocos, Auricularia auricula, Hericium erinaceus, Grifola frondosa, Flammulina velutipes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Trametes versicolor, Tremella fuciformis, and Schizophyllum ensemble. The regular consumption of edible mushrooms is said to offer significant health benefits. Some compounds recently isolated from these mushrooms have been found to exhibit potent immunomodulatory, antitumor, cardiovascular, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, hepatoprotective, and antidiabetic characteristics. This study provides an overview of mushrooms with medicinal potential and explores the unique health-promoting properties of some bioactive compounds derived from them.

The hexapeptide APPLRP from the edible Grifola frondosa mushroom has been verified to possess significant ACE inhibitory activity and ameliorates vascular remodeling. However, in vivo effects have not been systematically investigated. The present study aimed to explore the in vivo mechanisms of antihypertensive peptide APPLRP. The APPLRP significantly reduced both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in SHRs and improved disruptions of the renin-angiotensin system in circulation, as evidenced by decreased serum Ang II levels and ACE activity. APPLRP intervention ameliorated the aortic wall thickening and cardiac collagen deposition. APPLRP downregulated miR-125, miR-34a, and miR-150 while restoring the serum exosomal load of miR-145 and miR-143 in SHR. Exosomes from SHR could be captured by HUVECs and induced excessive secretion of inflammatory factors by activating the TLR4-mediated signaling pathway. APPLRP significantly ameliorated SHR-Exos-induced endothelial inflammation by downregulating STAT3, Akt, and p38 phosphorylation.

Grifola frondosa is a rare fungus valued for its nutritional and medicinal properties; however, its bacterial spot disease has been largely overlooked. Thus, this study systematically investigated, isolated, and identified the pathogen and evaluated control strategies for bacterial spot disease affecting G. frondosa cultivation in Qingyuan County, Zhejiang Province. Through integrated morphological, physiological and biochemical analysis, and multi-locus phylogenetic analyses (16S rRNA, gyrB), Priestia aryabhattai was identified as the causal pathogen. This pathogen exhibited host specificity, infecting only G. frondosa and Pleurotus ostreatus, inducing primordial growth arrest and causing spots on the stipe of mature fruiting bodies. Control assessments revealed significant antimicrobial efficacy for four chemical agents, benziothiazolinone, copper sulfate, ethylicin and tetramycin, three plant extracts, garlic, leek and onion, and two biocontrol strains, Chlorophyllum molybdites and Aspergillus fumigatus. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) demonstrated that these treatments caused ultrastructural damage to the pathogen’s cells, including membrane shrinkage, depression, and perforation. These findings establish key pathogenic characteristics and provide a scientific foundation for integrated disease management, supporting sustainable G. frondosa cultivation.

Background: The water-soluble Grifola frondosa polysaccharides (GFPs) are the primary bioactive component of the edible and medicinal fungus Grifola frondosa. However, the digestive behavior of GFPs in the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract and their subsequent interaction with gut microbiota (GM) to exert health effects remain unclear. Methods: In this study, GFPs were extracted based on a traditional hot water decoction. An in vitro simulated GI digestion model and a human fecal microbiota fermentation model were established to systematically investigate the digestive stability of GFPs, GM modulation, and metabolite changes. Results: Results showed that GFPs remained structurally stable during in vitro oral, gastric, and small intestinal digestion, allowing them to reach the colon intact for microbial fermentation. During colonic fermentation, GFPs were efficiently degraded by GM, and significantly increased the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Akkermansia, Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, and Lactobacillus while reducing the abundance of pathogenic Escherichia-Shigella. Meanwhile, GFPs enriched metabolites beneficial for intestinal health, among which γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) was the most significantly upregulated. Single-strain fermentation confirmed that Lactobacillus (L. plantarum) was the core GABA-producing genus. Conclusions: This study highlights the potential of GFPs as prebiotics for GM modulation, expands the understanding of the health-promoting effects of fungal polysaccharides, and provides a theoretical basis for the development of GFP-based functional foods.

To improve the processing performance and application potential of Grifola frondosa protein (GFP), this study employed multiple freeze–thaw (F-T) cycles to modify GFP and systematically evaluated the changes in its structure, functional properties, and digestive behavior. The results indicated that F-T treatment induced significant oxidation and structural unfolding in GFP, as evidenced by an increase in carbonyl content from 0.75 ± 0.05 nmol/mg to 1.77 ± 0.04 nmol/mg, a decrease in α-helix content from 40.23% to 36.78%, disruption of the microstructure, and degradation of some low-molecular-weight proteins. In terms of functional properties, F-T treatment significantly enhanced the emulsifying performance of GFP, with the best effect observed after 3 F-T cycles. Emulsifying ability increased from 21.83 ± 1.14 m2/g to 26.11 ± 1.61 m2/g, and emulsifying stability improved from 18.36 ± 1.78% to 25.37 ± 0.84%. This was accompanied by favorable changes in the emulsion’s interfacial properties, including a reduction in average particle size (480.5 ± 30.5 nm) and an increase in absolute ζ-potential (−55.5 ± 0.2 mV). These changes were closely related to the dynamic evolution of free sulfhydryl groups and surface hydrophobicity. In vitro digestion experiments revealed that the protein digestibility and soluble peptide content of GFP peaked after two F-T treatments, reaching 64.88 ± 0.86% and 1.99 ± 0.09118 mg/mL, respectively, and then gradually declined; its antioxidant activity also showed an initial increase followed by a decrease with increasing F-T cycles. In summary, an appropriate number of F-T treatments can effectively enhance the emulsifying properties and digestive characteristics of GFP; this research provides a theoretical basis for the physical modification of GFP and broadens its potential applications in food emulsion products.

Agaricomycetes and Pezizomycetes mushrooms, which form epigeal and hypogeal sporomata, are considered to have excellent nutritional and medicinal value. They produce various bioactive compounds (polysaccharides, terpenoids, phenolics, polyketides, proteins, etc.) with therapeutic effects, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, antiviral, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, and wound-healing properties. Out of an estimated 1.5 to 3.0 million fungal species, approximately 150,000 are mushroom-forming fungi. Of these, about 14,000–16,000 are taxonomically identified, including about 7,000 edible and 7,000 medicinal species, with 130 species described as having pharmacological activity. Currently, about 200 species are produced biotechnologically, and 50 species are cultivated commercially. The wide spectrum of bioactivities exhibited by mushroom-derived biomolecules is utilized to develop health-promoting biotech products for humans and animals. Species within Agaricomycetes, such as Coriolus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, Hericium erinaceus, and Lentinula edodes, have been reported as prebiotics that regulate gut microbiota through cell wall glucans. Supplementing various food products (dairy beverages, yogurts, bread, pasta, beer, etc.) with mushrooms significantly enhances their quality and nutritional value. Recent advances in biotechnological mushroom cultivation have decreased the costs and increased the availability of mushroom-derived health-enhancing biotech products (pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, etc.), making them widely accessible worldwide. These products can be obtained from wild and cultivated mushrooms, as well as from surface and submerged mycelia, sclerotia, mitospores, and meiospores. Progress in fungal biology, biotechnology, myco-pharmacology, genomics, metabolomics, and proteomics has contributed to the application of mushrooms in nanobiotechnology and nanomedicine, promoting food safety and human health, while also generating positive environmental impacts.

Cardiotoxicity is an undesirable side-effect of chemotherapy that limits the effectiveness of cancer treatment. Almost all cardiotoxic drugs can cause a variety of heart conditions (heart failure, arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, etc.) by stimulation of oxidative stress and other pathological conditions. The search for bioactive compounds against chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity is a priority area of cardio-oncology. Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most effective and widely-used anthracycline derivative anticancer drug. Administration of DOX is restricted due to the risk of developing congestive heart failure promoting myocardial apoptosis and oxidative stress, decreasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes and increasing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. A combination of DOX and cardioprotective natural agents, including fungi and plants, is an effective therapeutic strategy to improve the outcome of cancer therapy. Medicinal mushrooms are producers of different bioactive compounds with various therapeutic effects, including antioxidant properties. They possess cardioprotective activity by reducing risk factors to develop cardiovascular diseases. Agaricus bisporus, Fomes fomentarius, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, Morchella esculenta and Trametes versicolor, as well as Cordyceps, Inonotus, Phellinus and Pleurotus species have been reported to prevent DOX-induced cardiotoxicity, including oxidative stress and adverse biochemical alterations in cardiac tissue. The administration of extracts from basidiomes and mycelia showed significant cardioprotective effect against DOX-induced cardiotoxicity, restored cellular viability and reduced the oxidative stress via mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathways. Triterpenes isolated from G. lucidum prevented DOX-induced oxidative stress and ameliorated myocardial cardiomyopathy in rats. Thus, mushroom-derived pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals can be used as a potential food supplement for reducing the DOX-induced cardiotoxicity during anticancer chemotherapy. Further clinical studies in integrative oncology are warranted to investigate the effect of mushrooms as a protective strategy against chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity in cancer patients.

Nowadays, an efficient and environmentally friendly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling method has gained greater attention, enabling a circular economy for polyesters. Since PET is a hydrophobic polymer, the enzyme's binding affinity to PET becomes a significant issue. Herein, the first strategy is introduced to enhance PET fiber hydrolysis by genetically fusing hydrolyzing enzymes such as cutinase and PETase to protein hydrophobin HGFI. HGFI, a surface-active protein from Grifola frondosa, was used to improve the rate of enzyme hydrolysis. Furthermore, cellulose binding domains (CBD) were employed as a solubility enhancer tag of PETase fusion due to the insoluble characteristics of HGFI and PETase. The fusion proteins (CBD-HGFI-PETase and HGFI-Cut_2) were constructed with a flexible linker, expressed in Escherichia coli, and then purified by chromatography. PETase fusion exhibited 2.5-fold higher concentrations of monomer products released than that of cutinase fusion after 5 days of hydrolysis. According to the results, the fusion of HGFI to PETase showed excellent performance for enhancing the binding affinity of the enzyme on PET fiber substrate due to the increasing number of self-assembled hydrophobin interactions that modified the PET surface to be more hydrophilic. Therefore, this study indicates that the construction of CBD-HGFI-PETase enzyme fusion could be used as a novel method for efficiently accelerating PET biodegradation.

Grifola frondosa polysaccharides (GFP), which possess antitumor properties, can counteract intestinal injury induced by cyclophosphamide (CTX). The objective of this research was to evaluate the efficacy of GFP in protecting the intestinal barrier of mice and investigate the mechanisms behind this effect. Using a CTX-induced intestinal barrier injury model, we found that GFP treatment significantly alleviated body weight loss and organ atrophy, while enhancing serum IgG and IgM levels. Histological analysis showed that GFP effectively repaired the intestinal mucosal structure, increased goblet cell numbers, and led to an upregulation in the gene expression of ZO-1, Occludin, and MUC2. GFP modulated cytokine expression, including IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10, and IL-22. According to 16S rDNA sequencing results, GFP enhanced the abundance of unclassified_Muribaculaceae while reducing the prevalence of Escherichia_Shigella. Furthermore, GFP elevated the concentrations of several metabolites, including SCFAs and pyridoxal, which are closely related to intestinal barrier protection and mucosal immunity. Overall, this study demonstrated that GFP has strong potential as an immune-enhancing adjuvant and may represent a promising intervention strategy to mitigate chemotherapy-induced intestinal injury.

Abstract Medicinal mushrooms have acquired noteworthy scientific and restorative attention due to the presence of an array of bioactive compounds and vital therapeutic uses in traditional medicine. The current appraisal describes the versatile aspects of medicinal mushrooms counting their extraction techniques, chemical constituents, pharmacological actions, immunomodulatory potential and toxic effects. This review critically examines the classical and advanced methods for extracting the active components of medicinal mushrooms such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and terpenoids. Therapeutic qualities like cardioprotective, antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, adaptogenic, anticancer, hepatoprotective, anti‐inflammatory, neuroprotective, and immunomodulatory effects are attributed to these substances. Mushrooms possess a variety of immunomodulatory mechanisms that interact with the immune system: macrophage activation, cytokine production, actuation of Natural Killer (NK) cells, T‐cell Activation, adaptive immune response, immune signaling pathway regulation, anti‐inflammatory effects and Myeloid‐Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSCs). Moreover, the current investigation summarizes the chemical, pharmacological and immunoodulatory profile of 98 medicinal mushrooms (like Agaricus bisporus, Cordyceps sinensis, Flammulina velutipes, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, Hericium erinaceus, Inonotus obliquus, Lentinus edodes and Trametes versicolor). This collection shall serve as a repository of knowledge for researchers in the future who hope to study the medicinal mushrooms.

Edible fungi possess high nutritional and medicinal values, and are playing an increasingly important role in promoting human health worldwide. Since 2000, China has become the world's largest producer and consumer of edible fungi. Based on comprehensive data on the edible fungi industry in China since 2014, as well as related scientific literature, we present an overview of the edible fungi industry in China in the recent decade and analyze developing trends. In recent years, the rapid development of cultivation and breeding technologies has driven high output and quality production of edible fungi. According to the data from the China Edible Fungi Association and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the total edible fungi production value in China increased from 225.81 billion RMB (33.95 billion USD) in 2014 to 388.72 billion RMB (47.17 billion USD) in 2022, and the global mushroom market size is 53.94 billion USD in 2022, thus the Chinese mushroom market accounting for 87.45% of the global annual production value. Our linear regression analysis predicts that this trend will continue, and China’s edible fungi production value is expected to increase to 527.39 billion RMB by 2030. These developments position edible fungi as a strategic component for global food security and climate-resilient agriculture, given their efficient resource utilization and adaptability. In China numerous species have been successfully domesticated with widespread cultivation, 24 species with rapidly expanding production since 2014 are introduced, including Auricularia spp., Coprinus comatus, Cordyceps militaris, Cyclocybe cylindracea complex, Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Ganoderma spp., Grifola frondosa, Hericium spp., Hymenopellis raphanipes, Lentinula edodes, Lyophyllum decastes, Morchella spp., Naematelia aurantialba complex, Phallus spp., Phlebopus portentosus, Pholiota microspora, Pleurotus spp., Sanghuangporus spp., Schizophyllum commune, Sparassis latifolia, Stropharia rugosoannulata, Tremella fuciformis, Volvariella volvacea and Wolfiporia hoelen. The various cultivated species and geographical conditions make the production model of edible fungi highly diversified. This has resulted in the transition from scattered household cultivation to cooperative production involving "Company + Farmer" coupled with the development of large-scale industrialized cultivation. Parallel advancements in processing technologies have been evident, as evidenced by the proliferation of commercial products; processed mushroom products have become increasingly common in the market. Bibliometric analysis of recent research (2014-2023) reveals accelerated innovation of edible fungi in four domains: genetic breeding, cultivation technology, bioactive components, and processing. A shift of the global innovation centre for edible fungi towards China is evident.

A novel and efficient hydrogen peroxide/ascorbic acid-assisted extraction method for the preparation of Grifola frondosa polysaccharide (GFP) was developed, and two GFP fractions (GFP-H and GFP-L) with different molecular weights (Mws) were obtained by separation with ultrafiltration. Both high Mw component (GFP-H, Mw 396.4kDa) and low Mw component (GFP-L, Mw 12.5kDa) are possibly mainly comprised of →4)-β-Glcp-(1→, →6)-α-Glcp-(1→, →6)-α-Galp-(1→, α-T-Glcp, →3,6)-α-Manp-(1→, and β-D-GlcpA-(1→ units. The physicochemical properties of GFPs, such as surface morphology, rheological properties, and thermal stability, were also analyzed. Their modulatory effects on human gut microbiota were evaluated using a simulated human intestinal fermentation model in vitro. The results showed that GFPs could be degraded by intestinal microorganisms and promoted the production of short-chain fatty acids such as acetic acid and butyric acid. Compared with GFP-L, GFP-H exhibited a better ability to increase the abundance of beneficial bacteria (e.g., Bifidobacterium, Megasphaera, and Lactobacillus) and reduce the abundance of harmful bacteria (e.g., Escherichia/Shigella, and Lachnoclostridium). This work revealed that Mw of GFP had a significant impact on the human gut microbiota-regulating effect. This study provided valuable information about the relationship between the structure of GFPs and their regulatory effect on intestinal flora.

Azo dyes, widely used in the textile industry, are toxic, persistent, and resistant to natural degradation, causing significant water pollution and disrupting aquatic ecosystems. This study investigates the enzymatic biodegradation of these pollutants using laccase, tyrosinase, and peroxidase MSP1 from Grifola frondosa . These enzymes, known for their broad substrate specificity, can catalyze the breakdown of complex aromatic structures, making them promising candidates for eco-friendly azo dye removal. Protein sequences were retrieved from NCBI, and physicochemical analysis confirmed structural stability (instability indices <40). Molecular docking with 14 azo dyes identified Congo red as the best-binding substrate, with docking scores of −10.1 (laccase), −10.6 (MSP1), and −11.3 (tyrosinase). Interaction analysis revealed hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces (1.75–5.42 Å) supporting effective binding. Protein–protein interaction scores were high (0.82, 0.88, and 0.84), and STRING co-expression analysis indicated gene clusters involved in azo dye metabolism. These results suggest that combining these enzymes could synergistically enhance azo dye degradation. Future work should focus on enzyme engineering, experimental validation, and scale-up for industrial wastewater treatment.

ABSTRACTThe increasing prevalence of drug resistance diminishes the efficacy of chemotherapy and other therapeutic modalities for individuals diagnosed with lung cancer. Therefore, it is imperative to develop novel treatment approaches. This study examined how mesenchymal stem cell‐derived exosomes containing extraction of Grifola frondosa (G. frondosa) affected lung cancer cells. Exosomes were obtained from mesenchymal stem cells and loaded with G. frondosa extract (extract‐exosomes) by sonication. The effects of extract‐exosomes on A549 lung cancer cells were assessed in vitro on cell viability, colony formation, mitochondrial membrane disruption, migration, apoptosis, autophagy, and cell cycle. Moreover, we examined apoptosis‐related genes mRNA expression by real‐time PCR. Finally, both NF‐κB and MAPK signaling pathways were evaluated by western blotting method. Our results indicated that exposure to extract‐exosomes significantly inhibits lung cancer cells proliferation, colony formation, and migration. Furthermore, this treatment increased mitochondrial membrane disruption, apoptosis, and autophagy in the cancer cells. Additionally, there was a notable increase in the number of the treated cancer cells at G1 and sub‐G1 phases of the cell cycle. The research findings indicate that extract‐exosomes can inhibit lung cancer cells proliferation through the induction of apoptosis and autophagy, cell cycle arrest, as well as modification of NF‐κB and MAPK pathways.

Effects of hydrothermal treatment and low pH on the fermentation characteristics of polysaccharides based water-soluble Maitake with Lactobacillus acidophilus and L. plantarum.

Grifola frondosa (Maitake) extract as natural antioxidant on emulsion-type pork sausages.

Identification and characterization of antihypertensive peptides from edible Grifola frondosa (maitake) mushroom hydrolysates: Suppression of vascular remodeling in angiotensin II-induced zebrafish model