Greek Rule Research Articles

Controversial regulatory issues related to the working hours of overtime work, rest period, downtime, stand-by duty and on-call duty in Hungarian law in the context of Euro-Atlantic law

In this study, we discuss the European regulation of working time, including the system of the working time banking. First, we review the standards set in Hungary and its application, then the regulations of individual European countries, broken down by country. In addition to the German, Austrian and Greek rules based on the German legal grounds, we also compare the labour law rules of Southern European countries, Scandinavian countries and East-Central Europe. The Anglo-Saxon legislation is also reviewed with its peculiarities.

Transnationalistic memories: Frédéric Boissonnas’ photographic construction of a Greek-Christian European Thessaloniki in Salonique et ses basiliques (1919)

Frédéric Boissonnas’ album, Salonique et ses basiliques, captures the city at a very precise moment in its history. The album’s photographs were taken between 1912 and 1913, that is, just at the end of the Ottoman and the beginning of Greek rule, but before the great fire of 1917 that destroyed the city centre, removing virtually all traces of the Turkish and Jewish quarters. The album also predates the forced exchange of Muslim and Christian populations in 1923 that finally brought the transculturalism of the city to an abrupt end. Through a close reading of Boissonnas’ photographs, within the theoretical framework of past transnationalistic and present-day transcultural memories, this article argues that political and ideological allegiances directed the creation, dissemination and consumption of an artistic product. The article concludes with a reflection on the city’s return to its transcultural roots.

Amendments to the Thin Cap Rule, the CFC Rule and the GAAR Following ATAD Implementation

In this note, the author provides a summary of the revised Greek rules following implementation of the ATAD in Greece. The author comments on the new rules and compares them to the former ones.

Policy transfer as the growth of dynamics and challenges: The case of school textbooks in Greece

The Greek school textbook is at the core of this article and is treated as a matter of policy. In 2003, the Greek Government decided to include the publishing of school textbooks in the current Community support framework and as a result school textbook publishing goes beyond Greek priorities and gains European interest, which means that the whole process, being mainly supported by Community funding, has to respect certain of its rules and procedures. Our aim here is to show how European policies were transferred to the Greek context and how they inter-reacted with the corresponding Greek rules and procedures. The theoretical framework is based on Dolowich and Marsh’s (2008) proposal concerning the transformation of the concept of policy transfer into an analytical schema in the study of the policy transfer process. The methodology includes the content analysis of 29 school textbooks and comparison of the old ones with the new, and 32 interviews with actors involved in writing and publishing them.

The Headdress of the Tillya Tepe “Prince”

The sensational finds made at Tillya Tepe in Northern Afghanistan close to the modern city of Sheberghān, are the primary source for reconstructing the cultural history of Bactria in the turbulent period between the end of Greek rule and the rise of the Kushan Empire. The paucity of written sources from this period (mid second centurybceto mid first centuryce), and our resulting lack of understanding of even major political and cultural events, has led to its apt characterization as the “Dark Age” of Bactrian history. In this context, a special place should therefore be reserved for archaeological finds and Tillya Tepe is undoubtedly the most important site of this period. The significance of the Tillya Tepe finds for the reconstruction of Bactrian history and its cultural landscape has long been recognized, but they still have much to offer in terms of historical inquiry. In what follows I shall attempt a new reconstruction of the headdress of a “prince” buried in Graveivand conclude that it allows us to place him within the orbit of the Indo-Parthian Gondopharid dynasty, one of the most powerful regional political entities of the period.

Jewish Entrepreneurship in Salonica, 1912–1940: An Ethnic Economy in Transition by Orly Meron, and: Οι Eβραίοι της Θεσσαλονίκης 1856–1919: Μια ιδι-αίτερη κοινότητα [The Jews of Thessaloniki, 1856–1919: A unique community] by Rena Molho (Pένα Μόλχο), and: Tο Ολοκαύτωμα των Eλλήνων Eβραίων: Μελέτες ιστορίας και μνή-μης [The Holocaust of the Greek Jews: Studies in history and memory] by Rena Molho (Pέ

Reviewed by: Jewish Entrepreneurship in Salonica, 1912–1940: An Ethnic Economy in Transition by Orly Meron, and: Οι Eβραίοι της Θεσσαλονίκης 1856–1919: Μια ιδι-αίτερη κοινότητα [The Jews of Thessaloniki, 1856–1919: A unique community] by Rena Molho (Pένα Μόλχο), and: Tο Ολοκαύτωμα των Eλλήνων Eβραίων: Μελέτες ιστορίας και μνή-μης [The Holocaust of the Greek Jews: Studies in history and memory] by Rena Molho (Pένα Μόλχο) Andrew Apostolou (bio) Orly Meron, Jewish Entrepreneurship in Salonica, 1912–1940: An Ethnic Economy in Transition. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. 2011. Pp. 434. 42 tables, 9 appendixes, and 6 figures. Cloth $125. Rena Molho (Pένα Μόλχο), Οι Eβραίοι της Θεσσαλονίκης 1856–1919: Μια ιδι-αίτερη κοινότητα [The Jews of Thessaloniki, 1856–1919: A unique community]. Reprint. Athens: Pataki. 2014. Pp. 333. Paper €15.62. Rena Molho (Pένα Μόλχο), Tο Ολοκαύτωμα των Eλλήνων Eβραίων: Μελέτες ιστορίας και μνή-μης [The Holocaust of the Greek Jews: Studies in history and memory]. Athens: Pataki. 2014. Pp. 236. Paper €13.94. The central question in the history of Greek Jews is whether they are part of the country and its heritage or historical flotsam that arrived on Greece's shores. Until recently, historians ignored Greek Jews and treated the Holocaust in Greece as of little concern to Greek history. Although popular and official opinion in Greece rejects the notion that the Jews are truly Greek, the books under review are part of a growing literature that incorporates the Jews into Greek history. The focus of this research is Salonika (Thessaloniki). For most of its modern history, the city had a distinctly Jewish character derived from the longstanding presence of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula. Public life in Salonika, for example, ran on a Jewish calendar, with economic activity largely suspended during Jewish holidays; Judeo-Spanish was in fact the main language. In October 1912, Greek troops captured this Jewish majority city and its Orthodox Christian hinterland. The resulting tension between the Greek government, which was unsure of its grip on Salonika and Macedonia, and the Salonika Jews is a theme of these three books. An important aspect of the political struggle for Salonika was anti-Semitism among the Greek Christians, an issue that both Orly Meron and Rena Molho confront directly but which many historians have avoided. Meron's book is an original and exhaustive examination of how Jewish enterprises responded to the upheavals that began in 1912. The Balkan Wars and World War I interrupted the dramatic economic and industrial growth that had begun in Salonika during the late Ottoman era. The flourishing Jewish economy lost its markets and faced hostility from the Greek government and from sectors of the Greek Christian population. Salonika went from being the second most important port in the Ottoman Empire to being the second most important port in Greece after Piraeus. Salonika's Jewish-dominated [End Page 593] economy lost markets to the north and east because, among other reasons, firms were unable to collect from debtors who were now on the other side of new international borders. Although the presence of the Allied armies during World War I (including this author's great-grandfather) provided a temporary respite, Greek rule, according to Meron, restructured the Jewish economy. The Greek government reneged on its promise to allow the Jews to work on Sunday so that they could close on Saturday and observe the Sabbath. Many Jews turned to self-employment in order to avoid unemployment. The Jewish economy became less comprehensive, encompassing fewer activities. Meron uses bank records to argue that Christians ousted Jews from the tobacco business, for example. Similarly, Jews became less involved in energy and public utilities, such as electricity, gas, water, and petrol, as well as in construction because official connections were required. Jews also left subsectors of the economy that were under Christian control: Christian-owned firms took control of the grain and flour industry, and Jews sold their brewing interests. Meron deliberately focuses on the Jewish-dominated sectors of the economy because, she argues, previous work has hidden the impact of Greek state discrimination on them. She provides approximately 100 pages of information on Jewish firms and analyses of economic sectors and subsectors according to ethnicity. She has examined bank records to discover important details about Jewish enterprises. Although the Jewish economy became more concentrated, Jews kept control over significant activities. Jewish firms remained the...

Migrant Ill -Treatment in Greek Law Enforcement Are the Strasbourg Court Judgments the Tip of the Iceberg?

The present paper aims to provide an analysis of the first major judgments of the Strasbourg Court which usefully shed light on the underlying, long-standing systemic failures of the Greek rule of law. The author argues that these judgments are in fact only the tip of the iceberg. For this the paper looks into the process of supervision of these judgments’ execution by Greece, which is pending before the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers, as well as into alarming reports issued notably by CPT as well as by the Greek Ombudsman. The paper also highlights the question of racial violence that has not been so far the subject of analysis in the Court’s judgments concerning ill-treatment in Greece. However, a number of reports, especially the annual reports of the Greek Racist Violence Recording Network since 2012, record numerous cases of racist violence by law enforcement officials targeting migrants and the ineffective responses by the administrative and judicial authorities. The paper’s concluding observations provide certain recommendations in order to enhance Greek law and practice and eradicate impunity. All views expressed in the paper are strictly personal.

Fielding, Nick South to the Great Steppe: The Travels of Thomas and Lucy Atkinson in Eastern Kazakhstan, 1847–1852 (review)

SEER, 94, 4, October 2016 748 Byzantine Empire, under Greek rule, was also not part of Tsar Nicholas’s plans in the Near East’ (p. 203). Thesixthandfinalchapteranalysesthe‘Russianangeranddisappointmentat theresistancetoabsolutism’(p.16)whicheventuallyledtotheGreekRevolution of 1843. This revolution, led by veterans of the War of Independence, called for the departure of the Bavarians and demanded a constitution, and led to an era of constitutional monarchy in Greece. The analysis of Greek identity as expressed in the constitution of 1844 serves as a background to the conclusion, which analyses the long-term legacy of Russian relations with Greece during that period. Overall, this book makes an important contribution to many fields within East European history. First and foremost it contributes to the history of the early Greek kingdom and the history of Russian international relations, but also to the study of Eastern Orthodoxy in the modern era, and nation-building processes in the Balkans specifically and in Europe more generally. Its strength lies in its use of both Greek and Russian sources taken from various archives, which allows Frary to offer a nuanced analysis of Greek national identity in the early Kingdom period and of Russian politics, particularly in terms of Russia’s perception of itself as an actor in the international arena. Harari College Worldwide Orel Beilinson Fielding, Nick. South to the Great Steppe: The Travels of Thomas and Lucy Atkinson in Eastern Kazakhstan, 1847–1852. First, London, 2015. 160 pp. Maps. Illustrations. Notes. £35.00 (paperback). A few years ago Anthony Cross published his invaluable reference work In the Lands of the Romanovs: An Annotated Bibliography of First-hand Englishlanguage Accounts of the Russian Empire, 1613–1917 (Cambridge, 2013). Lands of the Romanovs provides a fascinating reminder of just how many Britons published accounts detailing their experiences when travelling through the tsarist empire (including a thousand by those who visited the country between 1800 and 1900). Among the works listed by Cross are two written by Thomas Atkinson, and a third by his wife Lucy Atkinson, describing their travels through western Siberia and central Asia in the late 1840s and early 1850s. The books themselves are rather forgotten today, except by scholars who study the changing place of Russia in the British imagination. Nick Fielding uses his book, South to the Southern Steppe, to introduce a new audience to the Atkinson’s travels. He also casts some new light on the biography of the couple themselves. REVIEWS 749 Thomas Atkinson was an artist and architectural draughtsman from Yorkshire, who left England in the early 1840s following family bereavement and bankruptcy, and seems to have become fascinated by the idea of travel in Russia as the result of a chance meeting with Alexander Von Humboldt in Berlin. In his book, Oriental and Western Siberia (1858), Atkinson describes how he received permission from Nicholas I to ‘travel and sketch’ in the remote regions where central Asia met Siberia, visiting the region in spring 1847 in the company of the engineer Charles Austin. Before leaving St Petersburg, Atkinson had met Lucy Finley, who worked as governess to General Mikhail Muraviev-Vilenskii. Over the following year he sent her numerous letters, describing his experiences during his trip, which took him from the mining towns of the Urals and on into the steppes of central Asia. Atkinson returned to European Russia early in 1848, marrying Lucy at the British Consulate in Moscow, after which the two of them headed east again, travelling via Kazan´ to Semipalatinsk, and on towards the Altai mountains. Fielding quotes extensively from Thomas Atkinson’s published accounts of his travels, along with Lucy Atkinson’s Recollection of the Tatar Steppes and their Inhabitants (1863), a book which is both a more interesting and more reliable account than those of her husband. Fielding vividly describes the challenges faced by the Atkinsons in areas where Russian rule was at best tenuous (they faced death on more than one occasion from bandits and thirst). Despite the conditions, Lucy successfully gave birth to a son, who travelled with them over the following months, before the two of them returned to the comparative safety of Zmeinogorsk. Thomas later returned to travel again in Semirechye, leaving his wife...

Joint Liability of Shareholders for Taxes Owed by a Corporation: The New Greek Rule

This note examines a new rule imposing personal liability on shareholders for the outstanding taxes due by their corporation, in particular, whether the rule is efficient as a means of controlling opportunistic behaviour. As the new rule disregards the fundamental principle of limited liability, it has far-reaching implications for equity investment. In this regard, the note considers the potential cost of the rule and critically assesses the adequacy of legal safeguards provided for by the legislator.

The Cyprus Issue: Reflection on TRNC

Cyprus is a Eurasian island country located in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon and north of Egypt. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. The earliest known human activity on the island dates back to around the 10th millennium BC. At a strategic location in the Middle East, Cyprus has been occupied by several major powers, including the empires of the Hittites, Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Rashidun and Umayyad Arab caliphates, Lusignans, Venetians, and Ottomans. Settled by Mycenean Greeks in the 2nd millennium BCE, the island also experienced long periods of Greek rule under the Ptolemaic Egyptians and the Byzantines. In 333 BC, Alexander the Great conquered the island from the Persians. The Ottoman Empire conquered the island in 1571 and it remained under Ottoman control for over three centuries. It was placed under British administration in 1878 until it was granted independence in 1960, becoming a member of the Commonwealth the following year. In this paper an attempt is made to discuss the details about the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) commonly called Northern Cyprus, which is a self-declared state that comprises the northeastern part of the island of Cyprus recognized only by Turkey and the problems associated with it. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/afj.v4i0.12937 The Arts Faculty Journal Vol.4 July 2010-June 2011 pp.137-146

The Rabatak Inscription

Introduction The inscription of Rabatak was found in 1993 near an ancient hill in the north part of Baghlan in Afghanistan. The village of Rabatak is situated at the kilometer forty in the north-western part of the ancient province of Sorkh-Kotal near the border between Baghlan and Samangan provinces. The Rabatak inscription includes 23 lines in Bactrian language and a Greco-Bactrian script. The Bactrian language is one of the Eastern Middle Iranian Languages. It was spoken by the people of northern part of Afghanistan. It is noteworthy that Bactrian is the only Middle Iranian language whose writing system is based on the Greek alphabet, a fact ultimately attributable to Alexander’s conquest of Bactria and to maintenance of Greek rule for some 200 years after his death (323B.C.). In spite of the invasion of Bacteria by Alexander of Macedonia and his successors the Bactrian language continued to be in use. Around the Middle of the second century B.C. Bactria was overrun by nomads from the north called Tokharoi. They settled in northern part of Afghanistan and later gave their name to the area (Tokharistan). The Kushan Empire was founded early in the Christian era by Kujula Kadphises whose tribe obtained supremacy over the Tokharoi. With the collapse of the Kushan dynasty their lands fell into the hand of the Sasanians, under whom the administration of these provinces was entrusted to a governor styled Kusānsāh. From the middle of the fourth century Bactria and northwestern India were overrun by Hunnish tribes, of whom the Hephtahalites proved the most durable, maintaining their rule in parts of Afghanistan up to the Arab conquest in the seventh century. The aim of this article is to throw a new light both an the Bactrian history and language through Rabatak inscription by presenting its transliteration, transcription and translation into Persian language following with a commentary and an etymological word list. It is worth mentioning that in this study the historical and linguistic points are examined. Method of Research I have examined the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak according to the reading and interpreting of Nicholas Sims-Williams from University of London whose reading is based on the original copies and the photograph prepared by British Museum. I have used the method of translation and transcription used by him in his several editions of Bactrian documents as well as his edition of Bactrian Legal and Economical Documents. Result The result of studying Rabatak inscription indicates that Kanishka the great, who was the ruler of Kushan Empire, obtained his kingship from Nana and from all the gods. He discontinued the use of Greek language to be replaced by the Aryan language. In fact, any of the Indo-European languages of Iran or India could be called “Aryan”; but we are now sure that when he mentions the Aryan language, he means Bactrian, the language of his inscription, just as Darius meant Old Persian, the language of his inscription, when he wrote: “By the favor of Ahuramazda, I made another text in Aryan”. He also announced the beginning of a new era starting with the year 1 of his reign. Kanishka’s era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan dynasty. The inscription mentions the chief cities of north India which were controled by Kanishka. Conclusion The Rabatak inscription is written on a rock in the Bactrian language and the Greek script. It was found in 1993 at the site of Rabatak, in Afghanistan. According to this inscription Kanishka the great was a righteous and just king who was worthy of divine worship. It seems that the Aryan was a language used by the most Iranian people as a formal language of communication. The Rabatak inscription describes events of the first year of Kanishka in words strikingly similar to those used by Darius the Great in the inscription of Bisotun. The inscription also names the cities which were under the rule of Kanishka (lines 4-7). It is significant in implying the actual extent of Kushan rule under Kanishka. The inscription will therefore lead to a fundamental reassessment of our understanding of the Kushan kings who ruled an ancient empire centered on the territory now known as Afghanistan and Pakistan. Finally, it is very informative and important that Kanishka mentions the name of the kings who ruled up to his time. They were Kujula Kadphises as his great grandfather, Vima Taktu as his grandfather, Vima Kadphises as his father.

Judah between East and West: The Transition from Persian to Greek Rule (ca. 400-200 BCE). Edited by LESTER L. GRABBE and ODED LIPSCHITS.

Judah between East and West: The Transition from Persian to Greek Rule (ca. 400-200 BCE). Edited by LESTER L. GRABBE and ODED LIPSCHITS.

Graikų ir lotynų kirčiavimo įtaka lietuvių kirčio žymėjimui

THE INFLUENCE OF GREEK AND LATIN ACCENTUATION ON LITHU­ANIAN ACCENT NOTATIONSummaryThe accent signs of most alphabetic languages ultimately derive from Greek signs devised in the 3rd century BC. This 'Alexandrine' system of accent notation was transformed into the now current ‘Byzantine’ system for Greek around 400 AD. The Greek circumflex, originally written in the form of an arc like an inverted breve, was graphically transformed into its present wavy shape (identical to the Latin tilde) some time in the Middle Ages.In 16th century Europe (not in the 17th century, as was earlier believed) an artificial, so-called ‘Henninian’, accentuation system of Greek arose. In consequence, Greek accent signs were often treated as meaningless diacritics, useful only for the distinction of otherwise homonymous word forms. A similar use of distinctive (phonetically meaningless) accents was created in the Latin script, where it was current from the late 16th to the late 18th century.The Lithuanian accentuation of Daniel Klein follows closely this humanist Graeco-Latin usage of distinctive diacritics. The same tendency is observed in other Lithuanian writings of the time as well. The genitive singular endings -ôs / -ês and genitive plural ending -û were therefore more or less regularly marked with a circumflex sign, which had, at least in printed texts, the Latin angled (not the Greek tilde-like) shape. Thus the written circumflex sign, be it by incidence or, as Kurschat suggests, as a result of the intuitive insight of old Lithuanian grammarians, coincided with the actual Lithuanian circumflex intonation; accordingly the acute sign came to denote the Lithuanian acute intonation. The actual Lithuanian accents were, however, greatly distorted in writing by formally applying Greek accentuation rules. The accent notation of the 1737 grammar Universitas Lingvarum Litvaniae, known for its exact adherence to the actual Lithuanian syllable intonations rather than to formally applied Greek rules, is nevertheless consistent with this Graeco-Latin tradition in its choice of the circumflex sign to mark the Lithuanian circumflex accent. In the printed 1737 book the accent notation appears, however, somewhat awkward – an accentless letter of a different typeface is substituted for a letter with the acute – but we argue that this oddity was not the original author’s intention but was due to the lack of accented letter punches at the Vilnius University printing house.The alternative tradition of Lithuanian accent notation, started by Simonas Stanevičius, adopted by Kazimieras Jaunius, and rejected by Kazimieras Būga, is also discussed. While different from the traditional system, it was nevertheless based on the comparison of Lithuanian syllable intonations with those of Greek.The Lithuanian accent notation was given its final form by Friedrich Kurschat, who also gave the Lithuanian circumflex sign its present wavy shape, directly and consciously, as he himself admits, derived from Greek (especially from the Greek typefaces current in Germany and France; in Anglophone countries the Greek circumflex often still has the old arc-shaped form).The factor of the common Indo-European heritage in the actual coincidence of Greek and Lithuanian syllable intonations in the end syllables (acute in the nominative, circumflex in the genitive), put forward by Adalbert Bezzenberger, has suffered numerous attacks, notably from Jerzy Kurylowicz; but it has never been convincingly disproved. It still seems that what once was an intuitive – or even incidental – choice of Greek accent signs to mark corresponding Lithuanian accents, indeed reveals a much older and deeper affinity.

Prayer and Curse in Aeschylus’Seven Against Thebes

peaking is dangerously performative in the world of Aeschylus. The prime example is Oresteia: Kassandra’s prophecies and visions of the curse in Agamemnon, the raising of the dead in Choephoroi, the Furies’ “Binding Song” in Eumenides . 1 Aeschylus’ earlier Seven against Thebes also pivots on performative speech. As Helen Bacon has pointed out, Eteokles reinterprets the Argive shield emblems in the central scene so as to turn their omens against the bearers of the shields. 2 But performative speech calls for attention from the beginning of the play, in ways that have not been recognized, in prayer and violation of prayer, in kl e d o n (speech as omen) and apotropaic prayer. Not only do Eteokles and the chorus both utter prayers, but Eteokles makes the efficacy of speech an issue by passing harsh judgment on the chorus’ language in the presence of the gods, while the chorus tries more meekly to correct or cancel his. Critics have not devoted enough effort to investigating what is at stake here. Most accept Eteokles’ view that the chorus is destroying the morale of Theban citizens with its hysterics—overreact though he may—and sympathize with his effort to silence it. 3 It is more fruitful, I think, to examine the performative speech of both parties, Eteokles and the chorus, in light of Greek rules and norms for well-omened speech. I argue that performative speech early in the play reveals the working of the curse and offers new insight into the central conundrum of the play, Eteokles’ sudden change of attitude when he hears that Polyneikes is at the seventh gate. First, a brief description of the first part of Seven and interpretive approaches to it. The scene on stage represents the acropolis of Thebes, on which stand statues of the Theban gods. Probably they included the full complement mentioned by the chorus in lines 109–52, namely, Zeus, Athena,

A Theory of the Laws of War

The laws of war govern the weapons and tactics that belligerents may use against each other. This paper uses a model of conflict to explain and evaluate the laws of war. In the model a nation’s propensity to engage in conflict is a positive function of the effectiveness of military technology, and a negative function of the destructiveness of technology. Accordingly, in theory nations would want to agree to laws of war that permit destructive weapons and tactics but limit their effectiveness. However, nations with different endowments and resources will enjoy differential advantages, and this makes agreement on specific laws of war very difficult. The paper discusses empirical implications of the argument, and discusses whether the Hague Conventions are consistent with the model. The ancient Greeks fought many wars among themselves but also observed rules of battle. These rules prohibited summary execution of prisoners, attack on noncombatants, the pursuit of defeated opponents beyond a limited duration. and many other forms of warfare that are condemned to the present day. Josiah Ober argues that the Greek rules were intended to limit the violence of war, and he, like many other historians, take comfort in what seems like a natural human tendency to limit the brutality of war. A war in which prisoners are spared is surely more humane than a war in which they are executed. But another interpretation is possible. These “rules” could be descriptions of behavioral regularities rather than constraints on self-interested behavior. Prisoners are not usually executed but only because they have value as hostages and are often ransomed. Armies often spare noncombatants because they pose no immediate threat, they can provide supplies, information, and other services, and armies do not wish 1 Professor of Law, University of Chicago. Thanks to Jack Goldsmith, Rich Hynes, and Richard Posner, and especially to Ryan Goodman and Derek Jinks, for helpful comments, to The Sarah Scaife Foundation Fund and The Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation Fund for financial support, and to David Kitchen for valuable research assistance. 2 Josiah Ober, Classical Greek Times, in The Laws of War 13 (Michael Howard, et al. eds. 1994). to give other civilians a reason for resistance. And any army that pursues a defeated opponent risks outrunning its supply lines and falling into disorder. Patterns of behavior that seem humane are not necessarily signs of humanity. The view shared by Ober and others mistakenly assumes that the military objective is always to slaughter as many people as possible, when it is more often to acquire territory and secure other resources, activities that often are best accomplished by treating civilians and even enemy soldiers with restraint. The optimistic view about the laws of war is shared by many scholars in the international law community. Although their interpretation of events in past wars is, like Ober’s, often superficial—the common claim that international law prevented most belligerents from using poison gas against combatants during World War II makes an unnecessary puzzle of nations’ willingness to violate many other laws during that war— the pessimistic view that the laws of war have no effect is also too strong. It has trouble explaining why states talk as though they recognized laws of war, and in the last century made repeated efforts to codify them and expand them in treaties and conventions. The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 were the first significant official effort to spell out the rules of war. These rules included a general prohibition on weapons that cause “unnecessary suffering,” as well as several more specific restrictions on the use of weapons and tactics. Subsequent conventions have dealt with biological and antipersonnel weapons, the treatment of prisoners of war, and the treatment of civilians at time of war. And even though the laws of war were widely disregarded during World War I and World War II, they have been the subject of extensive diplomatic negotiation since 1945. The optimistic and pessimistic views, as fleshed out in the literature, differ in their assumptions about the motivations of states and their interpretations of evidence. The pessimists assume that states act in their interest, and their interest is usually that of security and power. The optimists assume that while states act in their interest, they also internalize the humanitarian norms reflected by international law, and treat them as 3 See Geoffrey Best, Humanity in Warfare (1980); Geoffrey Best, War and Law Since 1945 (1994).

Christianity and the Classics

‘What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?’ cries Tertullian of Carthage when the Christian Church was barely two centuries old, ‘what harmony is there between Plato's Academy and the Church?’ Then, with all the mastery of eloquence that he had learned in the school of classical rhetoric, he denounces non-Christian literature as pernicious—‘We have no need of curiosity going beyond Christ Jesus, nor of inquiry beyond the Gospel.’The question might still be crudely asked to-day—Why teach pagan literature in Christian countries and Christian schools? Some may answer that the problem and the conflict are past; none of the greater Christian churches opposes classical education now; on the contrary the clergy mostly encourage it, while it is the scientists that object. But Christianity and the classics meet each other with different facets in different epochs. Sometimes these facets seem less adjustable than those before them. And some of the defences made for pre-Christian literature by Christians, and some of the uses they recommend for it, deserve attention still.What follows here is mainly an historical survey, and necessarily a very sketchy one. It must begin long before our Lord's time, at the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. By that time Palestine and Egypt, the two great centres of Judaism, had come under Greek rule. After Alexander's death both these regions were taken over by Ptolemy. He and his namesake successors were enlightened and tolerant monarchs. Under their rule Hellenism gained ground among the Jews both at Jerusalem and at Alexandria.

Egyptian Nationalism under Greek and Roman Rule

Egyptian Nationalism under Greek and Roman Rule