Graphene-based Field-effect Transistors Research Articles

High-speed and broadband terahertz wave modulators based on large-area graphene field-effect transistors.

We present a broadband terahertz wave modulator with improved modulation depth and switch speed by cautiously selecting the gate dielectric materials in a large-area graphene-based field-effect transistor (GFET). An ultrathin Al2O3 film (∼60 nm) is deposited by an atomic-layer-deposition technique as a high-k gate dielectric layer, which reduces the Coulomb impurity scattering and cavity effect, and thus greatly improves the modulation performance. Our modulator has achieved a modulation depth of 22% and modulation speed of 170 kHz in a frequency range from 0.4 to 1.5 THz, which is a large improvement in comparison to its predecessor of SiO2-based GFET.

Radio-frequency transistors from millimeter-scale graphene domains

Graphene is a new promising candidate for application in radio-frequency (RF) electronics due to its excellent electronic properties such as ultrahigh carrier mobility, large threshold current density, and high saturation velocity. Recently, much progress has been made in the graphene-based RF field-effect transistors (RF-FETs). Here we present for the first time the high-performance top-gated RF transistors using millimeter-scale single graphene domain on a SiO2/Si substrate through a conventional microfabrication process. A maximum cut-off frequency of 178 GHz and a peak maximum oscillation frequency of 35 GHz are achieved in the graphene-domain-based FET with a gate length of 50 nm and 150 nm, respectively. This work shows that the millimeter-scale single graphene domain has great potential applications in RF devices and circuits.

Large current modulation in exfoliated-graphene/MoS2/metal vertical heterostructures

Graphene-based vertical field effect transistors have attracted considerable attention in the light of realizing high-speed switching devices; however, the functionality of such devices has been limited by either their small ON-OFF current ratios or ON current densities. We fabricate a graphene/MoS2/metal vertical heterostructure by using mechanical exfoliation and dry transfer of graphene and MoS2 layers. The van der Waals interface between graphene and MoS2 exhibits a Schottky barrier, thus enabling the possibility of well-defined current rectification. The height of the Schottky barrier can be strongly modulated by an external gate electric field owing to the small density of states of graphene. We obtain large current modulation exceeding 105 simultaneously with a large current density of ∼104 A/cm2, thereby demonstrating the superior performance of the exfoliated-graphene/MoS2/metal vertical field effect transistor.

Optically induced oxygen desorption from graphene measured using femtosecond two-pulse correlation

Recently, there has been a great deal of interest in the effect of atmospheric gases on the properties of graphene. We investigate the electrical and optical response of graphene-based field effect transistors that have been exposed to high purity oxygen gas using a combination of ultrafast two-pulse correlation (to give high temporal resolution) and low-frequency transport measurements (to monitor the photoinduced changes in the Fermi level). By measuring the Fermi level shifts, we are only sensitive to the oxygen atoms that interact directly with the surface. We compare our results to predictions of the empirical friction model for molecular desorption. We show the time scale of the relaxation associated with oxygen desorption to be $\ensuremath{\sim}100$ fs, suggesting the desorption proceeds through hot electron generation in the graphene rather than heating of the lattice through hot phonon generation.

Uniform growth of high-quality oxide thin films on graphene using a CdSe quantum dot array seeding layer.

Graphene displays outstanding properties as an electrode and a semiconducting channel material for transistors; however, the weak interfacial bond between graphene and an inorganic oxide material-based insulator presents a major constraint on these applications. Here, we report a new approach to improving the interface between the two materials using a CdSe quantum dot (QD)-based seeding layer in an inorganic material-graphene junction. CdSe QDs were electrochemically grown on graphene without degrading the properties of the graphene layer. The graphene structure was then used as the electrode in an oxide semiconductor by depositing a zinc oxide thin film onto the graphene coated with a QD seed layer (QD/G). The zinc oxide film adhered strongly to the graphene layer and provided a low contact resistance. A high-k dielectric layer in the form of an HfO2 film, which is an essential element in the fabrication of high-performance graphene-based field effect transistors, was also uniformly formed on the QD/G sheet using atomic layer deposition. The resulting transistors provided a relatively good performance, yielding hole and electron mobilities of 2600 and 2000 cm(2)/V·s.

Conductance modulation of charged lipid bilayer using electrolyte-gated graphene-field effect transistor.

Graphene is an attention-grabbing material in electronics, physics, chemistry, and even biology because of its unique properties such as high surface-area-to-volume ratio. Also, the ability of graphene-based materials to continuously tune charge carriers from holes to electrons makes them promising for biological applications, especially in lipid bilayer-based sensors. Furthermore, changes in charged lipid membrane properties can be electrically detected by a graphene-based electrolyte-gated graphene field effect transistor (GFET). In this paper, a monolayer graphene-based GFET with a focus on the conductance variation caused by membrane electric charges and thickness is studied. Monolayer graphene conductance as an electrical detection platform is suggested for neutral, negative, and positive electric-charged membrane. The electric charge and thickness of the lipid bilayer (QLP and LLP) as a function of carrier density are proposed, and the control parameters are defined. Finally, the proposed analytical model is compared with experimental data which indicates good overall agreement.

Graphene field-effect transistor and its application for electronic sensing.

Graphene, because of its excellent mechanical, electrical, chemical, physical properties, sparked great interest to develop and extend its applications. Particularly, graphene based field-effect transistors (GFETs) present exciting and bright prospects for sensing applications due to their greatly higher sensitivity and stronger selectivity. This Review highlights a selection of important topics pertinent to GFETs and their application in electronic sensors. This article begins with a description of the fabrications and characterizations of GFETs, and then introduces the new developments in physical, chemical, and biological electronic detection using GFETs. Finally, several perspective and current challenges of GFETs development are presented, and some proposals are suggested for further development and exploration.

Enhancing the electrical properties of a flexible transparent graphene-based field-effect transistor using electropolished copper foil for graphene growth.

Flexible transparent graphene-based field-effect transistors (Gr-FETs) were fabricated using large-area single-layer graphene synthesized through low-pressure chemical vapor deposition on a pretreated copper (Cu) foil, followed by transfer of the graphene from the Cu foil to a poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) substrate. The electropolishing method was adopted to smooth the surface of the Cu foil, which is a crucial factor because it affects the defect density of graphene films on the PET substrate after transfer and the electronic transport property of the graphene-based devices. The influence of the electropolishing process on the graphene properties was examined using a Raman spectroscope, a scanning electron microscope, and an optical microscope. When the electropolishing process was adopted to improve the graphene quality, the carrier mobility of the flexible transparent Gr-FETs was enhanced from 90 to 340 cm(2)/(V s). Furthermore, variation of the carrier mobility was lower than 10% when the bending radius of the flexible device was decreased from 6.0 to 1.0 cm.

Simulation-based design of a strained graphene field effect transistor incorporating the pseudo magnetic field effect

We present a numerical study on the performance of strained graphene-based field-effect transistors. A local strain less than 10% is applied over a central channel region of the graphene to induce the shift of the Dirac point in the channel region along the transverse momentum direction. The left and the right unstrained graphene regions are doped to be either n-type or p-type. By using the atomistic tight-binding model and a Green's function method, we predict that the gate voltage applied to the central strained graphene region can switch the drain current on and off with an on/off ratio of more than six orders of magnitude at room temperature. This is in spite of the absence of a bandgap in the strained channel region. Steeper subthreshold slopes below 60 mV/decade are also predicted at room temperature because of a mechanism similar to the band-to-band tunneling field-effect transistors.

Tuning on-off current ratio and field-effect mobility in a MoS(2)-graphene heterostructure via Schottky barrier modulation.

Field-effect transistor (FET) devices composed of a MoS2-graphene heterostructure can combine the advantages of high carrier mobility in graphene with the permanent band gap of MoS2 for digital applications. Herein, we investigate the electron transfer, photoluminescence, and gate-controlled carrier transport in such a heterostructure. We show that the junction is a Schottky barrier, whose height can be artificially controlled by gating or doping graphene. When the applied gate voltage (or the doping level) is zero, the photoexcited electron-hole pairs in monolayer MoS2 can be split by the heterojunction, significantly reducing the photoluminescence. By applying negative gate voltage (or p-doping) in graphene, the interlayer impedance formed between MoS2 and graphene exhibits an 100-fold increase. For the first time, we show that the gate-controlled interlayer Schottky impedance can be utilized to modulate carrier transport in graphene, significantly depleting the hole transport, but preserving the electron transport. Accordingly, we demonstrate a new type of FET device, which enables a controllable transition from NMOS digital to bipolar characteristics. In the NMOS digital regime, we report a very high room temperature on/off current ratio (ION/IOFF ∼ 36) in comparison to graphene-based FET devices without sacrificing the field-effect electron mobilities in graphene. By engineering the source/drain contact area, we further estimate that a higher value of ION/IOFF up to 100 can be obtained in the device architecture considered. The device architecture presented here may enable semiconducting behavior in graphene for digital and analogue electronics.

Graphene-based field effect transistor enzymatic glucose biosensor using silk protein for enzyme immobilization and device substrate

A silk fibroin-encapsulated graphene field effect transistor (FET) enzymatic biosensor that utilizes silk protein as both device substrate and enzyme immobilization material was developed for glucose detection. This biosensor detected glucose levels by measuring the differential drain-source current and the Dirac point shift of the graphene transistor as the glucose is oxidized by glucose oxidase that was immobilized in silk fibroin film on the graphene FET. The fabricated biosensors showed 0.1–10mM large linear detection range, which covers the reference range of medical examination for diabetes diagnostics. The detection limit of the fabricated biosensors was approximately 0.1mM (S/N=3) with excellent selectivity, and the average sensitivity was 2.5μA/mM measured at Vds=100mV and Vg=0V. Because this fibroin-encapsulated graphene FET enzymatic biosensor is biocompatible, flexible, and long-term stable, it holds a great promise for portable, wearable, and implantable continuous glucose monitoring applications.

Charging the quantum capacitance of graphene with a single biological ion channel.

The interaction of cell and organelle membranes (lipid bilayers) with nanoelectronics can enable new technologies to sense and measure electrophysiology in qualitatively new ways. To date, a variety of sensing devices have been demonstrated to measure membrane currents through macroscopic numbers of ion channels. However, nanoelectronic based sensing of single ion channel currents has been a challenge. Here, we report graphene-based field-effect transistors combined with supported lipid bilayers as a platform for measuring, for the first time, individual ion channel activity. We show that the supported lipid bilayers uniformly coat the single layer graphene surface, acting as a biomimetic barrier that insulates (both electrically and chemically) the graphene from the electrolyte environment. Upon introduction of pore-forming membrane proteins such as alamethicin and gramicidin A, current pulses are observed through the lipid bilayers from the graphene to the electrolyte, which charge the quantum capacitance of the graphene. This approach combines nanotechnology with electrophysiology to demonstrate qualitatively new ways of measuring ion channel currents.

Preparation and Applications of Mechanically Exfoliated Single-Layer and Multilayer MoS2and WSe2Nanosheets

Although great progress has been achieved in the study of graphene, the small current ON/OFF ratio in graphene-based field-effect transistors (FETs) limits its application in the fields of conventional transistors or logic circuits for low-power electronic switching. Recently, layered transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) materials, especially MoS2, have attracted increasing attention. In contrast to its bulk material with an indirect band gap, a single-layer (1L) MoS2 nanosheet is a semiconductor with a direct band gap of ~1.8 eV, which makes it a promising candidate for optoelectronic applications due to the enhancement of photoluminescence and high current ON/OFF ratio. Compared with TMD nanosheets prepared by chemical vapor deposition and liquid exfoliation, mechanically exfoliated ones possess pristine, clean, and high-quality structures, which are suitable for the fundamental study and potential applications based on their intrinsic thickness-dependent properties. In this Account, we summarize our recent research on the preparation, characterization, and applications of 1L and multilayer MoS2 and WSe2 nanosheets produced by mechanical exfoliation. During the preparation of nanosheets, we proposed a simple optical identification method to distinguish 1L and multilayer MoS2 and WSe2 nanosheets on a Si substrate coated with 90 and 300 nm SiO2. In addition, we used Raman spectroscopy to characterize mechanically exfoliated 1L and multilayer WSe2 nanosheets. For the first time, a new Raman peak at 308 cm(-1) was observed in the spectra of WSe2 nanosheets except for the 1L WSe2 nanosheet. Importantly, we found that the 1L WSe2 nanosheet is very sensitive to the laser power during characterization. The high power laser-induced local oxidation of WSe2 nanosheets and single crystals was monitored by Raman spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Hexagonal and monoclinic structured WO3 thin films were obtained from the local oxidization of single- to triple-layer (1L-3L) and quadruple- to quintuple-layer (4L-5L) WSe2 nanosheets, respectively. Then, we present Raman characterization of shear and breathing modes of 1L and multilayer MoS2 and WSe2 nanosheets in the low frequency range (<50 cm(-1)), which can be used to accurately identify the layer number of nanosheets. Magnetic force microscopy was used to characterize 1L and multilayer MoS2 nanosheets, and thickness-dependent magnetic response was found. In the last part, we briefly introduce the applications of 1L and multilayer MoS2 nanosheets in the fields of gas sensors and phototransistors.

A Comprehensive Graphene FET Model for Circuit Design

During the last years, Graphene based Field Effect Transistors (GFET) have shown outstanding RF performance; therefore, they have attracted considerable attention from the electronic devices and circuits communities. At the same time, analytical models that predict the electrical characteristics of GFETs have evolved rapidly. These models, however, have a complexity level that can only be handled with the help of a circuit simulator. On the other hand, analog circuit designers require simple models that enable them to carry out fast hand calculations, i.e., to create circuits using small-signal hybrid-{\pi} models, calculate figures of merit, estimate gains, pole-zero positions, etc. This paper presents a comprehensive GFET model that is simple enough for being used in hand-calculations during circuit design and at the same time it is accurate enough to capture the electrical characteristics of the devices in the operating regions of interest. Closed analytical expressions are provided for the drain current ID, small-signal transconductance gain gm, output resistance ro, and parasitic Vgs and Cgd. In addition, figures of merit such as intrinsic voltage gain AV, transconductance efficiency gm/ID, and transit frequency fT are presented. The proposed model has been compared to a complete analytical model and also to measured data available in current literature. The results show that the proposed model follows closely to both the complete analytical model and the measured data; therefore, it can be successfully applied in the design of GFET analog circuits.

Effect of Sub 2-Nm Pt Nanoparticle on the Conduction Properties of Graphene Based Field Effect Transistor

Graphene-based transistors are attractive platforms due to graphene’s promising electrical properties. Currently, depositing and controlling the size distribution of metal nanoparticles (NPs) on a support surface, such as graphene, without damaging the support is an issue faced in applications involving metal (NPs) in new age electronics. To overcome this barrier, we have developed a low power tilted target sputtering process for achieving sub-2 nm metal (NPs) on graphene with controlled sizes, number densities, and narrow size distributions. In this report, we study the unique properties of platinum (Pt) NPs and their applications in graphene-based FETs by modifying the conduction channel with sub-nm Pt NPs. By using ultra-small size Pt NPs with quantized energy level, we influence the electrical properties of large area single layer graphene through both electron transfer and carrier scattering, resulting in large Dirac point shifting (0.15MV/m for 300nm of SiO2 as blocking oxide) in the I-V characteristics and change in conductivity, respectively; all of which could be helpful to better understand the metal NP-Graphene interaction. We also show that the plasma damage created on the graphene surface from the sputter deposition of metal nanoparticles can be removed by 250 oC annealing in hydrogen.

Semi Analytical Modeling of Quantum Capacitance of Graphene-Based Ion Sensitive Field Effect Transistor

Quantum capacitance as a one of the main characteristics of FET devices is in our focus in this paper. The quantum capacitance of graphene-based ion sensitive FET with an equivalent circuit is presented and also based on the analytical model a numerical solution is reported. The temperature effect on the quantum capacitance is highlighted, in which minimum capacitance dramatically rises by increasing the temperature. Furthermore, the capacitance model is adopted to derive current- voltage characteristic of the proposed device for different gate-source voltages. As the Vgs increases from 0.2 to 0.5 v, drain current (ID) is also rising. To further confirm this viewpoint, the presented analytical model is compared with experimental data and acceptable agreement is reported.

Fabrication of free-standing Al2O3 nanosheets for high mobility flexible graphene field effect transistors

We propose a facile methodology for large-scale fabrication of graphene-based field effect transistors (GFETs) with two types of devices, top- and bottom-gated configurations. The top-gated GFETs containing a monolayer graphene channel, a free-standing Al2O3 nanosheet as the gate dielectrics and a top-gate electrode were assembled by a poly(methyl methacrylate)-assisted wet-transfer technique. As a result, the hole mobility of the top-gated GFETs was 2306.28 ± 295.53 cm2 V−1 s−1, which is much higher than that of top-gated GFETs with Al2O3 dielectrics prepared by atomic layer deposition (15.28 cm2 V−1 s−1). We also simultaneously synthesized graphene–graphite integrated electronic devices, in which we utilized graphene and graphite layers as an active channel layer and source/drain electrodes for bottom-gated all-graphene-based FETs, respectively. In addition, a layer-by-layer stacked multilayer graphene sheet and free-standing Al2O3 dielectrics were employed as a gate electrode and a dielectric layer, respectively. Significantly, all component layers were assembled by a poly(methyl methacrylate)-assisted wet-transfer technique, which is a progression towards high-performance, transparent, and flexible GFETs.

Static Nonlinearity in Graphene Field Effect Transistors

The static linearity performance metrics of the graphene-based field effect transistor (GFET) transconductor are studied and modeled. Closed expressions are proposed for second- and third-order harmonic distortion (HD2, HD3), second-and third-order intermodulation distortion (ΔIM2, ΔIM3), and secondand third-order intercept points (AIIP2, AIIP3). The expressions are validated through large-signal simulations using a GFET VerilogA analytical model and a commercial circuit simulator. The proposed expressions can be used during circuit design to predict the GFET biasing conditions at which linearity requirements are met.

Charging the Quantum Capacitance of Graphene with a Single Biological Ion Channel

The interaction of cell and organelle membranes (lipid bilayers) with nanoelectronics can enable new technologies to sense and measure electrophysiology in qualitatively new ways. To date, a variety of sensing devices have been demonstrated to measure membrane currents through macroscopic numbers of ion channels. However, nanoelectronic based sensing of single ion channel currents has been a challenge. Here, we report graphene-based field-effect transistors combined with supported lipid bilayers as a platform for measuring, for the first time, individual ion channel activity. We show that the supported lipid bilayers uniformly coat the single layer graphene surface, acting as a biomimetic barrier that insulates (both electrically and chemically) the graphene from the electrolyte environment. Upon introduction of pore-forming membrane proteins such as alamethicin and gramicidin A, current pulses are observed through the lipid bilayers from the graphene to the electrolyte, which charge the quantum capacitan...

Synthesis of Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes Hybrid Nanostructures and Their Electrical Properties

The gapless semimetallic nature of graphene-based nanoelectronics is a major hurdle for the advancement of graphene-based field-effect transistors. Here graphene-carbon nanotubes hybrid nanostructures (Gr-CNTs HNSs) were formed by synthesizing single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) with a bandgap on monolayer graphene by thermal chemical vapor deposition. We systematically established optimum conditions for the synthesis of Gr-CNTs HNSs by adjusting catalytic layer formation. The structural features of Gr-CNTs HNSs were investigated by scanning electron icroscopy and Raman spectroscopy. The surface morphologies and chemical states of the catlytic films used to optimize Gr-CNTs HNSs synthesis were explored by atomic force microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. In this process, graphene played a role as a barrier to prevent Fe nanoparticles from interdiffusing into Al2O3 layer. Based on these studies, we determined the catalytic structure (Fe/Graphene/Al2O3/SiO2) optimal for growing high-density SWCNTs on monolayer graphene. Electrical transport measurements revealed that Gr-CNTs HNSs exhibited p-type semiconducting behavior with combined properties of graphene and CNTs.