Grain Size Ratio Research Articles

Pushing the grain size limit of pressureless-sintered alumina nanocrystalline ceramics by non-oxidizing atmospheres

Nanocrystalline ceramics are of interest due to their refined grains and expected ductility, yet their pressureless sintering is challenging considering the large coarsening driving force and the coupled densification-coarsening kinetics. Of special interest is the pressureless sintering of alumina nanocrystalline ceramics, with fundamental significance to ceramic processing science and technology. Previously reported efforts offered dense alumina nanocrystalline ceramics with average grain size Gavg down to 34 nm and with a coarsening ratio β (defined as the ratio of average grain size after and before sintering) of 7.2 from nanoparticles to dense alumina ceramics, by synergistically optimized α-Al2O3 nanoparticles and pressureless two-step sintering in air. Here we further pushed Gavg down to 29 nm and β down to 5.8, by changing air to non-oxidizing atmosphere (e.g., N2, Ar, and vacuum). We identified pronounced difference in sintering kinetics in air versus in N2, Ar, or vacuum, which is unexpected for wide-bandgap, redox-insensitive oxide materials of alumina. With smaller initial nanoparticles (e.g., <3.5 nm) and better optimized sintering conditions, it may be possible to pressureless-sinter dense alumina ceramics with Gavg below 20 nm.

Coupled continuum modelling of size segregation driven by shear-strain-rate gradients and flow in dense, bidisperse granular media

Dense granular systems that consist of particles of disparate sizes segregate based on size during flow, resulting in complex, coupled segregation and flow patterns. The ability to predict how granular mixtures segregate is important in the design of industrial processes and the understanding of geophysical phenomena. The two primary drivers of size segregation are pressure gradients and shear-strain-rate gradients. In this work, we isolate size segregation driven by shear-strain-rate gradients by studying two dense granular flow geometries with constant pressure fields: gravity-driven flow down a long vertical chute with rough parallel walls and annular shear flow with rough inner and outer walls. We perform discrete element method (DEM) simulations of dense flow of bidisperse granular systems in both flow geometries, while varying system parameters, such as the flow rate, flow configuration size, fraction of large/small grains and grain-size ratio, and use DEM data to inform continuum constitutive equations for the relative flux of large and small particles. When the resulting continuum model for the dynamics of size segregation is coupled with the non-local granular fluidity model – a non-local continuum model for dense granular flow rheology – we show that both flow fields and segregation dynamics may be simultaneously captured using this coupled, continuum system of equations.

Geotechnical controls on erodibility in fluvial impact erosion

Abstract. Bedrock incision by rivers is commonly driven by the impacts of moving bedload particles. The speed of incision is modulated by rock properties, which is quantified within a parameter known as erodibility that scales the erosion rate to the erosive action of the flow. Although basic models for the geotechnical controls on rock erodibility have been suggested, large scatter and trends in the remaining relationships indicate that they are incompletely understood. Here, we conducted dedicated laboratory experiments measuring erodibility using erosion mills. In parallel, we measured uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength, Young's modulus, bulk density, and the Poisson's ratio for the tested lithologies. We find that under the same flow conditions, erosion rates of samples from the same lithology can vary by a factor of up to 60. This indicates that rock properties that may vary over short distances within the same rock can exert a strong control on its erosional properties. The geotechnical properties of the tested lithologies are strongly cross-correlated, preventing a purely empirical determination of their controls on erodibility. The currently prevailing model predicts that erosion rates should scale linearly with Young's modulus and inversely with the square of the tensile strength. We extend this model using first-principle physical arguments, taking into account the geotechnical properties of the impactor. The extended model provides a better description of the data than the existing model. Yet, the fit is far from satisfactory. We suggest that the ratio of mineral grain size to the impactor diameter presents a strong control on erodibility that has not been quantified so far. We also discuss how our laboratory results upscale to real landscapes and long timescales. For both a revised stream power incision model and a sediment-flux-dependent incision model, we suggest that long-term erosion rates scale linearly with erodibility and that, within this theoretical framework, relative laboratory measurements of erodibility can be applied at the landscape scale.

Strength deterioration and energy dissipation characteristics of cemented backfill with different gangue particle size distributions

The particle size distribution of gangue is an important factor affecting the strength of backfill body. To uncover the strength deterioration law and energy dissipation characteristics of cemented backfill with different gangue particle sizes, the uniaxial compressive strength mechanical tests were carried out by scanning electron microscopy analysis combined with rock mechanics test system and acoustic emission monitoring equipment. The deformation failure mode, mechanical characteristics, acoustic emission response characteristics and energy dissipation characteristics of backfill samples with different particle size distribution under uniaxial compression were studied. The results shown that: The particle size distribution of gangue material is very important to the performance of backfill body. The compressive strength of the backfill sample with medium particle size was the largest. As the particle size of the gangue increases, the acoustic emission response degree of the backfill firstly increases followed by a subsequent decrease. The acoustic emission ringing count and energy rate reach the peak when the backfill was destroyed. Building upon the principle of energy dissipation and release, the defined energy dissipation ratio was used as the strength deterioration index of the backfill body. The energy dissipation ratio of fine grain size, medium grain size and coarse grain size filling was 19.64%, 7.85% and 12.93%, respectively. When the failure mode of the backfill shifts from tensile failure to shear failure, the energy dissipation ratio decreases from 19.64% to 7.85%. The storage capacity of elastic strain energy in the backfill gradually increases, and the strength degradation degree of backfill gradually decreases.

Cerium-modified single perovskite CaMnO3: structural, dielectric, and transport properties

ABSTRACT In this communication, the synthesis (solid-state reaction) and characterization (structural, dielectric, and transport) of the CaMn0.9Ce0.1O3 ceramic (named, CMCO) are discussed. The CMCO has an orthorhombic crystal symmetry with an average crystallite size of 108.7 nm and lattice strain of 0.00375 respectively. The grains are distributed uniformly in a very compact manner so that highly dense material is formed and the ratio of average grain size to average crystallite size is about 21, which may be a possible reason for a better dielectric and conductivity mechanism. Raman's study confirms the presence of all constituent elements. The analysis of the dielectric properties suggests the presence of the Maxwell-Wagner type of dispersion. The study of impedance spectroscopy reveals how grains and grain boundaries play an important role to define conductivity mechanism and hence prove a non-Debye type of relaxation. The analysis of the resistance versus temperature plots supports NTC thermistor character.

Shear stiffness of sand-fines binary mixtures: Effects of sand gradation and fines content

In this study, a comprehensive experimental programme was carried out on five clean sands of different gradations mixed with low plastic fines using an apparatus that incorporates both resonant column (RC) and bender element (BE) functions. The sand gradation is characterized by uniformity coefficient of host sand (Cus) and grain size ratio (Rd), which is defined as the ratio of the mean grain size of sand to that of fines. The effects of fines content (FC) and sand gradation on small strain shear modulus G0 are analyzed from the experimental results. Both RC and BE test results show that G0 continuously decreases in a non-linear manner as FC increases to 30% and becomes as low as nearly 50% of that of clean sand at the highest FC. The reduction rates with respect to FC are similar regardless of the testing type and the stress dependence of G0 is insensitive to FC. Meanwhile, G0 decreases as Cus or Rd increases at a given FC and void ratio or at a fixed equivalent skeleton void ratio e*. A new predictive model in terms of e* is proposed to evaluate the G0 of sand-fines mixtures to account for the effects of void ratio, confining pressure, FC, and sand gradation within ±20% deviation. Moreover, the rate of shear modulus degradation with shear strain and the damping ratio are higher for sand-fines mixtures with higher FCs.

Cerium modified (BiFeO3)0.5 – (MgTiO3)0.5 ceramics: Structural, microstructural, dielectric, transport and optical properties

In this communication, the synthesis (solid-state reaction) and characterization (structural, dielectric, and optical) of the 0.5BiFeO3-0.5MgTi1-xCexO3 (x = 0, 0.03. 0.06 and 0.1), (BFMTO) ceramics are reported. The x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirms the formation of orthorhombic crystal symmetry (#Cmm2) and is well-supported by the results of the tolerance factor. The average crystallite size is about 30 nm. The ratio of average grain size to average crystallite size may be one of the reasons for better dielectric properties in the prepared samples. The microstructural analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrograph suggests the presence of uniformly distributed grains through well-defined grain boundaries. The compositional and purity of the samples were studied by energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDX). The study of the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectrum reveals the presence of all functional groups related to constituent elements in the samples. The analysis of the dielectric properties suggests the presence of the Maxwell-Winger type of dispersion. The study of impedance spectroscopy suggests the fact that how the grains and grain boundaries play an important role in defining the conductivity mechanism and hence prove a non-Debye type of relaxation. The presence of semicircular arcs for x = 0, 0.03, 0.06, and 0.1 ceramics in both Nyquist and Cole-Cole plots reveal a negative temperature coefficient of resistance (NTCR) character. The study of UV visible spectra predicts an energy bandgap in the range of 1.24 to 1.62 eV, which makes the compound a suitable candidate for photovoltaic applications.

Effects of C and Nb on Pore-Grain Boundary Separation Behavior during Sintering of 420 Stainless Steel

This study investigated the evolution of density, grain size, and pore characteristics during the sintering of metal injection molding (MIM) 420, 420 + 0.3C and pre-alloyed 420Nb stainless steel powders. The results show that C promotes the reduction of oxides on the surface of stainless steel, thereby accelerating sintering at 1330 °C, which is the initial sintering stage of MIM 420. MIM 420Nb showed the slowest sintering rate due to the strong binding force between Nb and C. At 1350 °C, the sintering densities of MIM 420 and 420 + 0.3C slightly improved, whereas their grain sizes grew significantly. Scanning electron microscopy images show grain boundary-pore separation, which significantly retarded the grain boundary diffusion mechanism and hence reduced the densification rate. The addition of C accelerated the pore-grain boundary separation; thus MIM 420 + 0.3C showed the lowest density at this temperature among the materials analyzed in this study. Nb suppressed the grain growth rate; thus, MIM 420Nb exhibited the highest density among the three materials. At 1370 °C, MIM 420 + 0.3C reached the highest density owing to the creation of a liquid phase. Theoretical calculations proved that there is a linear relationship between the grain boundary area per unit volume and the interfacial pore area per unit volume. Furthermore, when the ratio of grain size to pore size is 28, the contact probability between the grain boundaries and pores is significantly reduced to approximately 10%, leading to an extremely slow densification rate and a rapid grain growth rate, which is consistent with the experimental results.

Potential Method to Distinguish Copper Molten Marks Using Boundary and Grain Characteristics.

The microstructure of molten marks changes according to ambient temperatures, when a short circuit occurs. Investigation of microstructural changes is important for understanding the properties of copper and examining the cause of a fire. In this study, the boundary characteristics and grain-size distribution of molten marks—primary-arc beads (PABs), which short-circuited at room temperature (25 °C), and secondary-arc beads (SABs), which short-circuited at high temperatures (600 °C, 900 °C)—were compared using electron backscatter diffraction. The distribution of Σ3 boundaries was compared, and it was found that SABs have a higher fraction of Σ3 boundaries than PABs. Moreover, it was confirmed that the ratio of maximum grain size (area) to the total area of the molten mark in SABs is larger than that in PABs. Thus, reliable discriminant factors were suggested, such as the fraction of Σ3 boundaries and normalized maximum grain size, which can distinguish PABs and SABs. The four discriminant factors, such as the (001)//LD, GAR, fraction of Σ3 boundaries, and fraction of maximum grain size to the total molten-mark area, were verified using the machine learning of t-SNE and Pearson correlation analyses.

Spacing and strain during multiphase boudinage in 3D

Most models of brittle boudinage predict a dependency of fracture spacing on thickness of the boudinaged layer. This basic relationship can be distorted in the case of multiphase boudinage, where structural inheritance, possibly combined with time evolution of rheology affects boudin geometries, but is not recognized in 2D outcrops. Here we present analyses from a metre-scale, serially sectioned sample of marble from Naxos, Greece, containing a layer of amphibolite, which is known to have experienced two phases of ductile drawn boudinage followed by five generations of brittle boudinage. We show that brittle boudinage depends on the ratio of grain size and layer thickness of the amphibolite. In very thin layers (few grains across), strain is diffuse throughout the entire layer, leading to macroscopically homogeneous stretching. Strain localisation starts when layer thickness exceeds 5 grains: narrow tensile necks and shear zones (35–45° dip) develop where the layer is < 10–20 grains thick. Thicker layers (<30–40 grains) show extensional (mode 1) fractures while shear fractures form in even thicker layers. The absence of shear fractures in thinner layers may be explained by a geometry-related compressive stress decrease in the pinches. This results in localised shear evolving only in thicker layers. Complete delocalisation where layer thickness approaches the grain scale is expected as the typical shear bandwidth in granular media (10–20 grains) exceeds layer thickness. Successive fracture reactivation causes geometrical complexity in the form of splays and branches, and in addition the thickness-dependence of strain localisation governs fracture distribution in the layer. A second, temporal trend is recorded in the progressive embrittlement of the rocks as they cooled during exhumation, evidenced by increasing fracture density and a switch from shear to extensional fracturing. In the final stages, the marble was brittle enough to allow fracture propagation from the amphibolite across the material interface into the marble and, finally, the formation of brittle fractures affecting both the amphibolite and marble.

Microstructure evolution and phase transformation of amorphous BCN–SiC composites prepared by two synthetic routes

Two amorphous BCN–SiC composites, sample BSC (BN + SiC + C) and sample BCSA (B2O3+C + Si + AlN) were prepared from different raw materials via spark plasma sintering (SPS) for 5 min at 1670 °C under a pressure of 30 MPa. Sample BCSA was found to generally outperform sample BSC, and its relative density (99.13% vs. 97.28%), flexural strength (453.1 MPa vs. 334.5 MPa), Vickers’ hardness (19.15 GPa vs. 16.53 GPa), and fracture toughness (5.21 MPa m1/2 vs. 3.76 MPa m1/2). The solid-phase reactions in the binary (sample BSC) and quaternary (sample BCSA) systems were elucidated from X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and thermodynamic calculations. The microstructure of the composites, which were synthesized from two different materials, was also characterized. The grain size and aspect ratio of the lamellar amorphous BCN grains played an important role in improving the mechanical properties of the composites. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) were used to clarify the microstructure of the amorphous phase of BCN and its interfacial area. Based on these results, element diffusion was discussed. The mechanism for the microstructural evolution and phase transformation of the composite were also discussed.

Simultaneous two-step enhanced permittivity and reduced loss tangent in Mg/Ge-Doped CaCu3Ti4O12 ceramics

Twice-enhanced dielectric permittivity for CaCu3Ti4O12 with a twofold reduced loss tangent was realized by doping with Mg at the Cu site. The dielectric permittivity was further enhanced by codoping with Ge at the Ti site with a further threefold reduction in the loss tangent. Theoretical calculations showed that Mg and Ge are preferentially occupied at the Cu sites in the CaCu3Ti4O12 structure. CaCu2.95Mg0.05Ti4-xGexO12 ceramics showed an enormous expansion of grain size with the segregation of Cu-rich phase along the grain boundary, which is likely attributed to the liquid phase sintering mechanism correlated to the preferential substitution of Ge ions. The enhancement of the dielectric permittivity originates from the enhanced ratio of mean grain size to grain boundary thickness and increased free charge inside the semiconducting grains, obeying a simple series-layer model of the internal barrier layer capacitor (IBLC). The dielectric properties can be well fitted by the Maxwell-Wagner polarization relaxation model based on the IBLC structure. Accordingly, a double-step reduction in the low-frequency loss tangent by only doping with Mg and further codoping with Ge ions was attributed to the double-step enhanced resistance of the insulating grain boundaries, which was due to the segregation of the Cu-rich phase.

An experimental scaling law for particle-size segregation in dense granular flows

Abstract

Study on induced work-function variation of titanium metal gate on various electrical parameters for delta-doped layer germanium source vertical tunnel FET

Workfunction variation (WFV) in a high-k/titanium metal gate stack vertical tunnel field-effect transistor (FET) with a delta-doped layer in the germanium source is explored using technology computer-aided design simulations. The field-induced quantum confinement effect is also evaluated for the vertical tunnel FET. The impact of the gate area on various electrical parameters such as the ON-current (σION), OFF current (σIOFF), current ratio [σ(ION/IOFF)], subthreshold swing (σSS), threshold voltage (σVT), and analog performance parameters such as the total gate capacitance (σCgg), transconductance (σgm), and cutoff frequency (σfT) due to WFV of the titanium gate metal is evaluated. The results show that the variability in ION and IOFF increases when decreasing the overall transistor gate area for different metal grain sizes. In addition, the variations in the subthreshold swing and threshold voltage also decrease for a larger gate area. The distributions of the electrical parameters show that, when the grain size is comparable to the gate dimension, the distribution is not Gaussian bounded. In addition, the plot of the ratio of the average grain size to the gate area reveals that a slope of more than ~ 120 mV is attained.

Al2O3–Ce:YAG and Al2O3–Ce:(Y,Gd)AG composite ceramics for high brightness lighting: Effect of microstructure

The paper studies efficient Al2O3–Ce:YAG and Al2O3–Ce:(Y,Gd)AG composite ceramic phosphors produced by reactive vacuum sintering. As one of the possible routes for microstructure optimization, effect of isothermal holding time was considered. The correlation between microstructural parameters (the ratio of average grain size of the matrix and thermally stable phase, residual porosity, grain and pore size distributions) and photoluminescent properties of sintered composite ceramics after combining them with a blue light-emitting diode was identified. The differences in thermal quenching behavior between Ce-doped and Ce,Gd-codoped systems were also discussed. The highest luminous efficiency of almost 151 lm/W (4526 K) and 133 lm/W (3808 K) was obtained for Al2O3–Ce:YAG, Al2O3–Ce:(Y,Gd)AG phosphors with garnet/alumina size ratio of 2.1 and 1.6, residual porosity of P = 0.0065 and 0.0047 vol%, respectively.

Features of wear and friction in titanium

The characteristics of friction and wear during low-frequency reciprocating motion of the indenter in commercially pure titanium with coarse and fine grains are investigated. The role of the microstructure refining and the ratio of grain size and displacement amplitude is shown.

Processing of Soft Magnetic Fine Powders Directly From As-Spun Partial Crystalline Fe77Ni5.5Co5.5Zr7B4Cu Ribbon via Ball Mill Without Devitrification

A key property for high-frequency inductive applications is the magnetic softness, ideally characterized by complete reversibility of the hysteresis curve. Magnetic softness of alloys depends on the dimensional ratio of grain size to the correlation length. The random anisotropy model predicts the optimum magnetic softness if the crystallite size is well below the correlation length. Based on this theory, a common strategy in processing is to obtain extremely fine nanoscale grains via rapidly solidified alloys, followed by a controlled vacuum anneal. As is well known, this conventional approach requires two demanding experimental conditions: 1) an extremely high quench rate, >105 K/s, and 2) a high vacuum anneal near 600 °C to avoid oxidation. Furthermore, the completely amorphous ribbon is extremely elastic and mechanically strong and is not easily made into the fine powder form for net-shaping and 3-D printing of the soft magnets. Therefore, annealing to induce crystallization is a necessary step before using any conventional powdering techniques, such as ball milling. In this article, we report a new processing strategy of making Fe77Ni5.5Co5.5Zr7B4Cu powders directly from the as-spun ribbons without any crystallization annealing step. This is achieved by melt spinning of the alloy at a relatively low quenching rate, resulting in partially crystallized ribbons that deform plastically, a behavior that is in sharp contrast to its amorphous counterpart. The ribbon samples are ball milled into fine powders by tungsten carbide (WC) at various time intervals. Magnetization measurements show extremely low coercive field (Hc) of 0.51 Oe for the powder that is ball milled for 60 min. However, Hc consistently increases with ball milling time, as the samples are strain-hardened, introducing more magneto anisotropy. The coercive fields of these samples are easily recovered during the high-temperature magnetization measurement at 900 K, and an Hc of 3.78 Oe is obtained upon recovery. This strategy paves a new way for straightforwardly making soft magnetic powders while avoiding high quenching rate requirement and the possibility of oxidation during annealing.

Debris‐flow‐dominated sediment transport through a channel network after wildfire

AbstractField studies that investigate sediment transport between debris‐flow‐producing headwaters and rivers are uncommon, particularly in forested settings, where debris flows are infrequent and opportunities for collecting data are limited. This study quantifies the volume and composition of sediment deposited in the arterial channel network of a 14‐km2 catchment (Washington Creek) that connects small, burned and debris‐flow‐producing headwaters (&lt;1 km2) with the Ovens River in SE Australia. We construct a sediment budget by combining new data on deposition with a sediment delivery model for post‐fire debris flows. Data on deposits were plotted alongside the slope–area curve to examine links between processes, catchment morphometry and geomorphic process domains. The results show that large deposits are concentrated in the proximity of three major channel junctions, which correspond to breaks in channel slope. Hyperconcentrated flows are more prominent towards the catchment outlet, where the slope–area curve indicates a transition from debris flow to fluvial domains. This shift corresponds to a change in efficiency of the flow, determined from the ratio of median grain size to channel slope. Our sediment budget suggests a total sediment efflux from Washington Creek catchment of 61 × 103 m3. There are similar contributions from hillslopes (43 ± 14 × 103 m3), first to third stream order channel (35 ± 12 × 103 m3) and the arterial fourth to fifth stream order channel (31 ± 17 × 103 m3) to the total volume of erosion. Deposition (39 ± 17 × 103 m3) within the arterial channel was higher than erosion (31 ± 17 × 103 m3), which means a net sediment gain of about 8 × 103 m3 in the arterial channel. The ratio of total deposition to total erosion was 0.44. For fines &lt;63 μm, this ratio was much smaller (0.11), which means that fines are preferentially exported. This has important implications for suspended sediment and water quality in downstream rivers. © 2019 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Runout transition and clustering instability observed in binary-mixture avalanche deposits

Binary mixtures of dry grains avalanching down a slope are experimentally studied in order to determine the interaction among coarse and fine grains and their effect on the deposit morphology. The distance travelled by the massive front of the avalanche over the horizontal plane of deposition area is measured as a function of mass content of fine particles in the mixture, grain-size ratio, and flume tilt. A sudden transition of the runout is detected at a critical content of fine particles, with a dependence on the grain-size ratio and flume tilt. This transition is explained as two simultaneous avalanches in different flowing regimes (a viscous-like one and an inertial one) competing against each other and provoking a full segregation and a split-off of the deposit into two well-defined, separated deposits. The formation of the distal deposit, in turn, depends on a critical amount of coarse particles. This allows the condensation of the pure coarse deposit around a small, initial seed cluster, which grows rapidly by braking and capturing subsequent colliding coarse particles. For different grain-size ratios and keeping a constant total mass, the change in the amount of fines needed for the transition to occur is found to be always less than 7%. For avalanches with a total mass of 4 kg we find that, most of the time, the runout of a binary avalanche is larger than the runout of monodisperse avalanches of corresponding constituent particles, due to lubrication on the coarse-dominated side or to drag by inertial particles on the fine-dominated side.

Experimental Correlations for the Performance and Aperture Selection of Wire-Wrapped Screens in Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage Production Wells

Summary Wire-wrapped screens (WWSs) are one of the most-commonly used devices by steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) operators because of the capacity to control plugging and improve flow performance. WWSs offer high open-to-flow area (OFA) (6 to 18%) that allow a high release of fines, hence, less pore plugging and accumulation at the near-screen zone. Over the years, several criteria have been proposed for the selection of aperture sizes on the basis of different industrial contexts and laboratory experiments. Generally, existing aperture-sizing recommendations include only a single point of the particle-size distribution (PSD). Operators and academics rely on sand-control testing to evaluate the performance of sand-control devices (SCDs). Scaled laboratory testing provides a straightforward tool to understand the role of flow rate, flowing phases, fluid properties, stresses, and screen specifications on sand retention and flow impairment. This study employs large-scale prepacked sand-retention tests (SRTs) to experimentally assess the performance of WWSs under variable single-phase and multiphase conditions. The experimental results and parametric trends are used to formulate a set of empirical equations that describe the response of the WWS. Several PSD classes with various fines content and particle size are tested to evaluate a broad range of PSDs. Operational procedures include the coinjection of gas, brine, and oil to emulate aggressive conditions during steam-breakthrough events. The experimental investigation leads to the formulation of predictive correlations. Additional PSDs were prepared to verify the adequacy of the proposed equations. The results show that sanding modes are both flow-rate and flowing-phase dependent. Moreover, the severity or intensity of producing sand is greatly influenced by the ratio of grain size to aperture size and the ability to form stable bridges. During gas and multiphase flow, a dramatic amount of sanding was observed for wider apertures caused by high multiphase flow velocities. However, liquid stages displayed less-intense transient behaviors. Remarkably, WWSs rendered an excellent flow performance even for low-quality sands and narrow apertures. Although further and more complete testing is required, empirical correlations showed good agreement with experimental results.