Instructional Goals Research Articles

From Smartphones to Smart Students: Learning vs. Distraction Using Smartphones in the Classroom

This study evaluates the impact of classroom smartphone use on student performance through two large-scale randomized controlled trials in China. Students were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: (i) smartphones banned, (ii) smartphones allowed and used at will without guidance, (iii) smartphones allowed with teacher prompts to use them for instruction, and (iv) smartphones banned with teachers prompting the use of paper-based aids. Our findings show that unstructured smartphone use reduced performance compared with banning them, whereas teacher-guided use significantly enhanced learning outcomes. Paper-based aids yielded no measurable performance gain over the ban. We analyzed classroom video recordings to track individual-level time spent in each condition. We found that students spent similar total time learning across conditions, but teacher-directed smartphone use produced disproportionately large marginal learning gains outweighing the losses from distraction. Guided use also helped close gender and performance gaps though it risked widening digital divides by major and region. These results suggest educators should receive support to develop purposeful, app-based smartphone instruction materials; policymakers should avoid blanket bans and instead adopt structured usage policies; and tech developers should design classroom-friendly tools aligned with instructional goals. With thoughtful implementation, smartphones can become engines of equity, positive engagement, and learning within the classroom.

Pemanfaatan Poster sebagai Media Pembelajaran Kreatif untuk Generasi Z

Student learning interest, particularly among Generation Z, tends to be low due to teaching methods that are often unengaging and not fully aligned with the characteristics of a generation raised in a digital ecosystem. This generation demonstrates a strong preference for visual content, rapid access to digital information, and an independent, interactive learning style. This study aims to explore the use of posters as an innovative learning medium suited to the traits of Generation Z. A descriptive qualitative method was employed using a case study approach, based on a literature review from various relevant journals. The findings indicate that posters function not only as visual aids but also as creative media capable of linking students’ learning needs with instructional goals. When used effectively, posters foster active student engagement and enhance material comprehension through visualization. The study concludes that teachers need to improve their competencies in designing innovative visual media that are relevant to technological advancements. The implications of these findings highlight the importance of supporting teachers in developing adaptive, visual-based learning strategies to address the educational challenges of the digital era.

A Comparative Study on the Characteristics and Validity of Instructor, Peer, and AI Feedback in College Writing Education : Focusing on Common Issues in Students’ Argumentative Texts

This study examines the distinct characteristics and validity of feedback provided by instructors, peers, and AI in the context of college writing instruction. Utilizing a shared evaluation rubric, each group reviewed the same set of argumentative essays. The feedback was analyzed based on its thematic focus and content type.</br>Instructor feedback, informed by disciplinary knowledge and pedagogical intent, most effectively addressed specific issues in student writing. It was also the only type of feedback to consistently integrate observations across different parts of the text, thereby supporting students’ overall writing development. Peer feedback, while often encouraging and occasionally practical, tended to emphasize surface-level features and varied widely depending on the reviewer’s own writing competence. AI-generated feedback offered consistent and readily available comments, particularly in assessing structure, language use, and the presence of reasoning or evidence. However, it often lacked depth in content-related analysis and frequently produced advice that was generic or insufficiently attuned to context.</br>Based on these findings, the study proposes structured ways to combine different feedback sources. It recommends a stage-based model, where feedback is provided sequentially depending on instructional goals, and a critical reflection activity, in which students compare feedback from all sources to make informed revision decisions.

Teaching local difficult history through primary sources

Teaching about local, difficult pasts can center students, their communities, and civic action. However, doing so poses personal and professional challenges. Drawing from Critical Historical Inquiry and Activity Theory, this study explored how six experienced secondary social studies teachers reasoned about selecting primary sources to teach the history of policing and activism in Detroit. As teachers developed their text-sets, they navigated a variety of tensions related to their instructional goals, beliefs, and knowledge of students’ identities and communities. We focus on two common areas of tension: how to teach the racialized history of Detroit policing while positioning students as sense-makers and while attending to students’ affective well-being. Findings highlight the complex, situated nature of pedagogical reasoning and the promises and challenges of a critical historical inquiry approach to local, difficult history. Findings also underscore the value of teachers’ multidimensional expertise in designing difficult history curricula.

Development and Application of TeachingLearning Materials with a Generative AI for ‘Exploration and Design of Career and Job’ Lesson at Vocational High Schools

This study aims to introduce Generative AI into vocational subject classes by developing teaching-learning materials that satisfy the achievement standards of ‘Exploration and Design of Career and Job’ learning element in ‘Successful Career Life’ subject, which is a specialized common subject presented in 2022 Revised National Curriculum for vocational high schools. The ADDIE model was applied to develop the materials. In the analysis phase, a literature review was conducted to identify the instructional needs for utilizing Generative AI in the ‘Successful Career Life’ subject of vocational high schools. Based on these findings, instructional goals were derived, and relevant tasks were analyzed to fulfill the achievement standards of the ‘Exploration and Design of Career and Job’ learning element. In the design phase, specific learning objectives were formulated, and evaluation plans for academic achievement were established. To enhance learner motivation, instructional strategies based on the ARCS model were constructed. ChatGPT, Gamma, and Canva were selected as teaching-learning tools. In the development phase, a total of six instructional materials, including a lesson plan for the ‘Exploration and Design of Career and Job’ learning element, were developed. The validity of these materials for field application was verified by experts, followed by a pilot test. Ultimately, materials for seven class sessions were completed. Afterwards, a pilot test was conducted and teaching-learning materials for a total of 7 classes were completed. In the implementation phase, the developed teaching-learning materials were applied in a class for 16 students at J Meister High School in Jeonbuk province. In the evaluation phase, the degree of learners’ achievement regarding the ‘Exploration and Design of Career and Job’ standards was assessed using a developed rubric, and learner satisfaction was surveyed. The average score for learners’ achievement based on the rubric was 14 out of 15. Through the above efforts, it is expected to provide opportunities to use new AI tools such as Generative AI in vocational high school classes, and also to expand the scope of related literacy cultivation and vocational education.

Elementary Teachers' Understanding and Use of Scientific Models from a Resource Perspective: Analyzing the Overlapping Structure of ERM and PRT

This study investigates how elementary teachers’ understanding of scientific models (Epistemic Resources for Modeling; ERM) and their instructional practices (Pedagogical Resources for Teaching; PRT) are enacted from a resource-based perspective. Lesson videos and interviews from five teachers were analyzed using Rodriguez’s framework of resource grain size. The findings indicate that ERM and PRT often appeared in overlapping structures—ERM elements (distributed or conceptual) were embedded within frame-level PRT. These resources were selectively activated depending on instructional goals such as concept clarification, inducing cognitive conflict, presenting alternative models, and expanding ideas. The grain size and combination of resources varied with the teacher’s purpose and lesson flow. This suggests that teachers’ model-related knowledge is not fixed but dynamically constructed from epistemic resources. The study provides a new lens to analyze teacher thinking in modeling instruction and informs directions for science teacher education.

인공지능 기반 교육 공학 도구의 효과성 분석

This study examined the effectiveness of AI-based educational technology through a case study of JindanMath, an AI-driven tool designed to support personalized mathematics instruction. JindanMath incorporated features such as real-time feedback, personalized learning pathways, and error note recommendations, aimed at enhancing teaching practices and student engagement. The study employed the Fidelity of Implementation (FOI) framework and a logic model to assess how the tool’s design and implementation influenced classroom outcomes, as opposed to using a traditional group comparison design. Data collection included teacher interviews, student usage logs, and a Delphi survey to evaluate key aspects of pedagogical effectiveness. The findings revealed that JindanMath significantly improved teacher efficiency through automated task manage- ment, personalized feedback, and student performance monitoring. Teachers benefited from streamlined grading, which al- lowed more time for instructional planning and student engagement activities. The tool also enhanced student learning by fos- tering autonomy and personalized learning experiences. However, sustaining long-term student participation posed a challenge, as some students showed decreased engagement over time. This finding underscored the importance of ongoing motivation and adaptive instructional strategies tailored to diverse learner needs. The study concluded that AI-based tools like JindanMath could have a profound impact when aligned with clear instructional goals and continuously optimized based on classroom contexts. By offering empirical evidence, this research informed educators and developers of effective practices for evaluating the impact of AI-based tools in educational settings.

Sustainability of social skills course in special education ecosystem: a comprehensive evaluation with CIPP model

Social skills are defined as learned behaviors that individuals employ in social interactions to elicit positive responses from others and to avert or mitigate negative reactions.The objective of this study was to evaluate the social skills curriculum for students with autism spectrum disorder in terms of educational needs and instructional goals, educational inputs, learning and teaching processes, learning environment, and evaluation.The data were collected through the implementation of a semi-structured interview form, which was utilized as a methodological instrument for the qualitative research. The research, which was conducted during the 2023-2024 academic year, encompassed the participation of 16 special education teachers. The research findings revealed four main themes and their sub-categories: Context, input, process, and product. Findings related to themes and categories are discussed comprehensively in the conclusion section.

The Impact of Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Students’ Self-concept on Mathematics Interest among Junior High School Students

Mathematics classrooms hold great potential to develop analytical thinking and problem-solving skills. However, many Filipino students remain disengaged from the subject due to low confidence and lack of sustained interest. This study examined the influence of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)—the integration of strong subject mastery with student-centered teaching strategies—and students’ math self-concept on their interest in mathematics. Employing a descriptive-correlational design, the study surveyed 372 Grade 7 to 10 students from the Division of Mati City using rigorously validated 5-point Likert scale questionnaires. These measured three domains of math self-concept (competence, affection, and peer comparison), five dimensions of math interest (teacher qualities, instructional strategies, math anxiety, classroom attitudes, and environment), and four components of perceived teacher PCK (subject matter knowledge, instructional goals, concepts, and knowledge of student understanding). Results revealed that students had a moderate math self-concept, with the highest in positive feelings and lowest in peer comparison. Their interest in math was high, especially regarding teacher qualities and strategies. Perceived teacher PCK was rated very high. Significant correlations emerged between self-concept and interest, and between PCK and both variables. Findings highlight that while confidence is important, high-quality instruction from knowledgeable, responsive teachers plays a greater role in sustaining interest. The study recommends targeted professional development to strengthen teachers’ subject expertise and student-centered practices that build confidence, reduce anxiety, and create engaging, supportive classrooms.

Washback effect: How it works on EFL students

Assessment is a fundamental component of the educational process, and its influence extends beyond measuring achievement to shaping how both students and teachers approach learning and instruction. This phenomenon, commonly referred to as washback or backwash, highlights the consequential effects of testing on educational practices. This study explores the washback effect of an English progress test on students at a reputable public senior high school in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Utilizing a qualitative descriptive research design, data were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions involving 16 students from the 12th grade. The objective was to examine the extent to which the progress test influenced students’ learning behaviors, strategies, and motivation. The findings reveal several significant outcomes. Firstly, the test served as a motivational tool, encouraging students to invest more effort in their English studies. Secondly, it led to more strategic learning behaviors, such as aligning study content with the test format and focusing on specific competencies likely to be assessed. Additionally, students reported increased engagement in group study activities, which enhanced their understanding and mastery of the material. The test also contributed to a more structured and goal-oriented classroom environment, positively affecting the overall teaching and learning atmosphere. These results underscore the dual nature of washback, showing that assessment can be a catalyst for positive educational change when effectively designed and implemented. The study emphasizes the importance of aligning assessments with instructional goals to foster meaningful and motivating learning experiences.

Using Gamification in Athletic Training Education: Foundational Concepts

Context Gamification integrates game elements outside of a game context. In an education setting, instructors can use gamification with goals ranging from brain breaks to critical appraisal of course content. Understanding the various elements can help decrease frustration and improve intended results, benefiting both the educator and the student. Objective To provide an overview of gamification in education, outline a gamification framework, and introduce a planning cycle that athletic training educators can use in course development. Background The use of game concepts in pedagogy goes back for decades, with recent interest increasing with technological advancements. Gamification, adopted on a large scale in 2010, uses game constructs in various platforms, ranging from no-tech to high fidelity. Description Athletic training educators can use gamification concepts for simple or complex game constructs with diverse educational materials. The flexibility within these concepts provides ample opportunity for instructor creativity. Educational Advantage(s) Gamification can give the student and the educator what they are looking for—an engaging environment and meaningful connections with course content. Gamification techniques can strengthen the delivery of course content beyond being used for basic test review, meeting course objectives, and student learning outcomes. Conclusion(s) With intentional use, gamification in athletic training coursework can increase student engagement and meet instructor goals.

AI-Powered Educational Agents: Opportunities, Innovations, and Ethical Challenges

Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have triggered rapid growth in AI-powered educational agents, yet researchers and practitioners still lack a consolidated view of how these systems are engineered and validated. To address this gap, we conducted a systematic literature review of 82 peer-reviewed and industry studies published from January 2023 to February 2025. Using a four-phase protocol, we extracted and coded them along six groups: technical and pedagogical frameworks, tutoring systems, assessment and feedback, curriculum design, personalization, and ethical considerations. Synthesizing these findings, we propose design principles that link technical choices to instructional goals and outline safeguards for privacy, fairness, and academic integrity. Across all domains, the evidence converges on a key insight: hybrid human–AI workflows, in which teachers curate and moderate LLM output, outperform fully autonomous tutors by combining scalable automation with pedagogical expertise. Limitations in the current literature, including short study horizons, small-sample experiments, and a bias toward positive findings, temper the generalizability of reported gains, highlighting the need for rigorous, long-term evaluations.

Organizational Cohesiveness for International School Leadership Teams: Implications and Considerations

The effectiveness of a leadership team is central to the overall effectiveness of the school. Leadership teams that collectively attend to actualizing instructional goals, building relationships and developing the culture of the school often find success in their efforts (Leithwood et al., 2020). However, some leadership teams struggle to develop this concerted level of organizational cohesiveness. This study investigated how teacher leaders’ organizational cohesiveness support the instructional goals of the school. Findings highlight how the team’s struggles were rooted in school leadership dynamics, unresolved priority differences and ambiguity in roles and responsibilities.

Implementation Independent Curriculum on Competencies Professionalism of RA Teachers in Bandar Lampung

The Independent Curriculum has been officially designated as the national curriculum for the 2024/2025 academic year, as outlined in KMA No. 347 of 2022. However, early childhood Islamic institutions (RA) under the Ministry of Religious Affairs remain underserved in professional training, creating a gap in curriculum readiness. This study aimed to enhance RA teachers’ capacity to implement the Independent Curriculum through a structured mentoring program focusing on curriculum design and teaching module development. Using the Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) approach, the program engaged 25 RA/PAUD teachers in Bandar Lampung through six online sessions and one offline workshop. The training covered differentiated learning, operational curriculum (KOM) development, and the integration of P5PPRA (Project Strengthening Profile of Pancasila Students and Rahmatan Lil Alamin). Results indicate significant improvement in teachers’ understanding of learner-centered pedagogy, assessment, and the alignment of vision-mission with instructional goals. Two institutions produced complete KOM documents, while others demonstrated partial progress. The program also fostered reflective teaching practices, collaborative planning, and integration of local culture and religious values into instructional design. In conclusion, sustained mentoring can bridge the gap in curriculum implementation at the early childhood level, promote teacher agency, and support systemic transformation aligned with the values of Islamic education. These findings underscore the importance of long-term, context-based professional development for successful curriculum reform.

Mathematical problem posing in Chinese Curriculum Standards

This paper presents an analysis of problem posing in the 2022 Chinese mathematics curriculum standards. The standards emphasize three competencies: being able to observe the real world from a mathematical perspective, being able to think mathematically about the real world, and being able to express the real world using mathematical language. The standards mention problem posing and the role problem posing plays in developing students’ “three competencies” more than 80 times. In Chinese curriculum standards, problem posing has been used as a cognitive activity, an instructional goal, and an instructional approach. In particular, the 2022 Chinese curriculum standards emphasize the four abilities of discovering problems, posing problems, analyzing problems, and solving problems. The paper ends with a discussion of how to implement problem posing in the classroom to realize the problem-posing requirements of Chinese curriculum standards.

A Critical Review of Using Learning Analytics for Formative Assessment: Progress, Pitfalls and Path Forward

ABSTRACTBackgroundWhile formative assessment is widely regarded as essential for improving teaching and learning, it remains difficult to operationalize due to systemic misalignment with other instructional practices, limited teacher capacity, low feedback quality, inferential uncertainty, domain‐general approaches, and validity concerns.ObjectivesThis editorial introduces a special issue that critically examines how learning analytics can contribute to advancing formative assessment by addressing persistent challenges in its design and implementation.Results and ConclusionThe twelve studies featured in this issue demonstrate several innovations such as adaptive feedback, multimodal analytics, predictive modeling, dashboard design, and evidence‐centered assessment frameworks. Collectively, these studies demonstrate how learning analytics can enhance formative assessment by personalizing feedback, scaling dialogic feedback, understanding the nature of feedback, improving assessment validity, automating assessment, uncovering deeper learning patterns, and improving assessment alignment with instructional goals. However, the issue also highlights several underexplored gaps, including the limited disciplinary adaptation of analytics tools, a lack of ongoing student involvement in feedback design, insufficient attention to ethical concerns and the physiological and motivational dimensions of assessment, and a limited understanding of the role of emerging technologies, in particular, Generative AI (GenAI). This editorial argues for a more critical, inclusive, and context‐sensitive approach to learning analytics in formative assessment—one that centers pedagogy, teacher and student agency, and long‐term educational value. The contributions of this special issue lay essential groundwork for future research, policy, and practice aimed at transforming formative assessment through learning analytics.

Does inquiry-based learning work better in regular classrooms or computer-based settings?

Abstract Enhancing students’ conceptual understanding and improving their inquiry skills and motivation for learning science are the goals of science instruction in learning environments. The current study investigated how different inquiry-based learning environments (regular classroom and computer-based environments) affect middle school students’ conceptual understanding of force and energy, inquiry skills, and motivation for learning science. A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest research design was used, with a total of 306 seventh-grade participants. A conceptual understanding test, an inquiry skills test, a motivation scale, and interviews were used to gather data. The findings revealed that the students in the computer-based learning environments showed significantly greater improvement than their counterparts in regular classroom environments in terms of conceptual understanding and inquiry skills. However, there was no meaningful difference in their motivation for learning science. Furthermore, the number of misconceptions about the topic of force and energy held by the students who learned in computer-based learning environments was relatively high. Possible reasons for the results including the advantages of instructional technologies, students’ inquiry abilities, and factors affecting motivation are discussed.

The Lived Experiences of the Kindergarten Teachers in Public and Private School in China Basis for the Enhancement

A research study investigates the educational experiences of Chinese teachers working in public and private kindergarten institutions by understanding their struggles with language teaching and their response methods. Phenomenological qualitative interviews were conducted with ten kindergarten teachers who had at least two years of teaching experience. Important findings that emerged from the study involved strategies for classroom management, alignment with curriculum standards, emotional regulation practices, and parent school collaboration practices. Three major problems that teachers reported in their work included misalignment between instructional goals and school standards, short attention spans of students, and difficulties in communicating with parents. Educators used game-based learning; positive reinforcement of learning augmented with reflective teaching practices to address these challenges. The findings emphasize that teachers’ emotional resilience and strong partnerships with parents are vital to an effective classroom. The findings of this research point out a demand for context specific training and supportive programs that provide a place-based framework for creating high quality teaching practices in inclusive early childhood language learning environments.

The influences of three types of peer-questioning scaffoldings on online peer learning in a virtual museum environment

ABSTRACT Peer questioning scaffoldings have potentials to improve students’ meaning making and knowledge construction, as well as promote students’ high-order cognitive skills in online peer learning settings. However, existing empirical research reported controversial results concerning the effects of various peer-questioning scaffoldings and limited research employed integrated methods to offer process-oriented, summative, and psychological or emotional evidence regarding the effects of peer questioning on student learning. To address these gaps, this research employed three types of peer-questioning scaffoldings (i.e. comprehension questions, deep-reasoning questions, and argumentation questions) in an online peer learning research and empirically investigated the effects of three types of peer-questioning on the pair of students’ collaborative processes and performance. Results showed that comprehension questions had the worst effects on peer learning process; deep-reasoning questions promoted interactive perspectives between peers and aroused positive emotions of students; argumentation questions stimulated individual perspective elaboration, facilitated peer conversation behaviors, and advanced students’ high level of scientific performances. Based on the empirical research results, this study highlighted the importance of aligning peer-questioning scaffoldings with instructional goals, adjusting pedagogical guidance based on task complexity, and employing dynamic scaffoldings to optimize learning outcomes.

The Importance of English Language Learning in Early Grades: Theoretical Review and Implementation Strategies

This article examines the urgency of teaching English to young learners (early grade students) in the era of globalization. Early foreign language learning is believed to provide a strong foundation for children's linguistic and cognitive development. The discussion encompasses various relevant teaching methods and strategies, emphasizing the importance of age-appropriate and interest-based approaches, as well as the integration of technology in language learning. The success of early grade English education is greatly influenced by teachers’ ability to create a positive and stimulating learning environment. This is supported by second language acquisition theories such as Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen, 1985), which highlights the importance of low-anxiety settings; the Play-Based Learning principle (Pramling Samuelsson & Asplund Carlsson, 2008), which recognizes play as a natural learning medium for children; Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory (Gardner, 1983), which encourages a variety of methods to accommodate different learning styles; and the development of Communicative Competence (Hymes, 1972; Canale & Swain, 1980) as the primary goal of language instruction.