Ginseng Root Research Articles

Recent trends in ginseng research.

Ginseng, the dried root of Panax ginseng, contains ginsenosides and has long been used in Korea, China, and Japan to treat various symptoms. Many studies on the utility of ginseng have been conducted and in this paper we investigate recent trends in ginseng research. P. ginseng studies were collected from scientific databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and SciFindern) using the keywords "Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer", "ginsenosides", "genetic diversity", "biosynthesis", "cultivation", and "pharmacology". We identified 1208 studies up to and including September 2023: 549 studies on pharmacology, 262 studies on chemical components, 131 studies on molecular biology, 58 studies on cultivation, 71 studies on tissue culture, 28 studies on clinical trials, 123 reviews, and 49 studies in other fields. Many researchers focused on the characteristic ginseng component ginsenoside to elucidate the mechanism of ginseng's pharmacological action, the relationship between component patterns and cultivation areas and conditions, and gene expression.

Ginsenosides Rg1 and Rg2 Activate Autophagy and Attenuate Oxidative Stress in Neuroblastoma Cells Overexpressing Aβ(1-42).

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegeneration with protein deposits, altered proteolysis, and inflammatory and oxidative processes as major hallmarks. Despite the continuous search for potential therapeutic treatments, no cure is available to date. The use of natural molecules as adjuvants in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease is a very promising strategy. In this regard, ginsenosides from ginseng root show a variety of biological effects. Here, we dissected the role of ginsenosides Rg1 and Rg2 in modulating autophagy and oxidative stress in neuroblastoma cells overexpressing Aβ(1-42). Key hallmarks of these cellular processes were detected through immunomethods and fluorometric assays. Our findings indicate that ginsenosides are able to upregulate autophagy in neuronal cells as demonstrated by increased levels of LC3II and Beclin-1 proteins and decreased amounts of p62. Simultaneously, an activation of lysosomal hydrolases was observed. Furthermore, autophagy activation promoted the clearance of Aβ(1-42). Rg1 and Rg2 also reduced oxidative stress sources and macromolecule oxidation, promoting NRF2 nuclear translocation and the expression of antioxidant enzymes. Our data further clarify the mechanisms of action of Rg1 and Rg2, indicating new insights into their role in the management of disorders like Alzheimer's disease.

The influence of chitosan on plant growth and -sitosterol content in adventitious roots of Talinum paniculatum in NFT hydroponic cultivation system

Beta-sitosterol is the most abundant type of phytosterol found in nature and it offers numerous health benefits for humans including anticancer, antidiabetic, and blood cholesterol-lowering properties. One biomass with a significant beta-sitosterol content is the Javanese ginseng root (Talinum paniculatum). However, Javanese ginseng has not been fully exploited and is often perceived as a mere wild plant. This research was conducted by cultivating Javanese ginseng using the Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) hydroponic method along with the addition of chitosan elicitors at various concentrations: 0, 12.5, 25, and 50 ppm. The purpose of this research was to determine the optimal chitosan concentration for the growth of Javanese ginseng, the beta-sitosterol content, and the productivity of -sitosterol in Javanese ginseng roots. The research revealed that a 12.5 ppm chitosan concentration could increase the root weight by 8.785 g and the shoot weight by 88 g. The growth rate increased to 3.457 g/day and the productivity of -sitosterol in the roots reached 25.084 mg/m2/month. On the other hand, the addition of chitosan led to a decrease in the root-to-shoot ratio, indicating an improved cultivation environment compared to cultivation without chitosan. Furthermore, the results of the research also indicated that the addition of chitosan did not affect the β-sitosterol content in the Javanese ginseng adventitious roots. Therefore, it can be concluded that the optimal chitosan concentration that positively impacts Javanese ginseng cultivated using the NFT hydroponic method is 12.5 ppm because chitosan generates Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which causing plant damage and cell death when threshold exceeded.

The Hepatoprotective Effects of Ginsenoside from Ginseng: A Review of Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potentials.

Treatment of hepatic diseases presents a significant challenge due to their diverse nature. Ginsenosides, bioactive compounds derived from the root of Panax ginseng and widely used in traditional Chinese medicine, offer multifaceted protection to various organs in the body. Their versatile effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and more, make them a promising approach for addressing hepatic disorders. This review explores the intricate molecular mechanisms and properties of ginsenosides in the prevention and treatment of liver ailments, from mild conditions to severe damage and liver fibrosis. Given the increasing prevalence of hepatic disorders, this article sheds light on the significant pharmaceutical potential of ginsenosides in the realm of hepatic disease management.

Trapping and on‐column hydrolysis strategy coupled with high‐performance liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry for new ginsenosides identification and quantification

AbstractMalonyl ginsenosides (mRs) are physiologically active constituents of Asian and American ginseng (P. quinquefolius). They are also important quality markers for the herbs from the Panax genus. Their contents are relevant to several essential quality characteristics of ginseng, for example, the original species, the growing age, the planting areas, the cultivation methods, and the processing conditions. However, when extracted from the herb, an mR is very unstable to lose the malonyl group. This property hampers the structural and quantitative determination of an mR. Herein, We report a trapping and on‐column hydrolysis coupled with a high‐performance liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC‐MS/MS) method. With this method, 19 mRs have been identified from Panax ginseng roots. The isomers of some mRs with identical MS/MS characteristics have been differentiated. The quantities of these mRs have also been determined without references using this method. The quantitative results can be traced to the quantity of certified neutral ginsenoside reference materials. The method has been well‐validated. In addition, unique low‐abundance acetyl ginsenoside Rg1 and malonyl pseudoginsenoside F11 were identified from P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius, respectively.

Complete genome sequence of a novel mitovirus isolated from the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ginseng causing ginseng root rot.

A novel mitovirus, tentatively designated as "Fusarium oxysporum mitovirus 2" (FoMV2), was isolated from the pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ginseng strain 0414 infecting Panax ginseng. The complete genome of FoMV2 is 2388 nt in length with a GC content of 30.57%. It contains a large open reading frame (ORF) encoding a putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of 713 amino acids with a molecular weight of 83.05 kDa. The sequence identity between FoMV2 and Botrytis cinerea mitovirus 8 and Fusarium verticillioides mitovirus 1 was 87.94% and 77.85%, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed that FoMV2 belongs to the genus Unuamitovirus in the family Mitoviridae. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of an unuamitovirus isolated from F. oxysporum f. sp. ginseng causing ginseng root rot.

Ginseng root extract-mediated synthesis of monodisperse silver nanoparticles as a fluorescent probe for the spectrofluorometric determination of nilvadipine; Evaluation of remarkable anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and in-vitro cytotoxic activities

Nanoparticles are a boon for humanity because of their improved functionality and unlimited potential applications. Considering this significance, the proposed study introduced a simple, fast and eco-friendly method for synthesis of fluorescent silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) using Panax Ginseng root extract as a reducing and capping agent. Synthesis of Ag-NPs was performed in one step within three minutes utilizing microwave irradiation. The resulting Ag-NPs were characterized using various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques such as, Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), UV/Visible spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy(FTIR) and Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). The prepared Ag-NPs, which act as a fluorescent nano-probe with an emission band at 416 nm after excitation at 331 nm, were used to assay nilvadipine (NLV) spectrofluorimetrically in its pharmaceutical dosage form with good sensitivity and reproducibility. The proposed study is based on the ability of NLV to quantitatively quench the native Ag-NPs fluorescence, forming a ground state complex as a result of static quenching and an inner filter mechanism. The suggested approach displayed a satisfactory linear relationship throughout a concentration range of 5.0 μM − 100.0 μM, with LOD and LOQ values of 1.18 μM and 3.57 μM, respectively. Validation of the suggested approach was examined in accordance with ICH recommendations. In addition, the anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activities of the prepared nanoparticles were investigated, and they demonstrated effective anti-microbial activities and opened a future prospective to combat future antibiotic resistance. Finally, in-vitro cytotoxicity assay of Ag-NPs against normal and cancerous human cell lines was studied using MTT assay. The results proved the potential use of the produced Ag-NPs as an adjunct to anticancer treatment or for drug delivery without significantly harming healthy human cells.

Comparative Assessment of In Vitro Xanthine Oxidase and α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activities of Cultured Cambial Meristematic Cells, Adventitious Roots, and Field-Cultivated Ginseng.

Panax ginseng, a traditional Chinese medicine with a history spanning thousands of years, faces overexploitation and challenges related to extended growth periods. Tissue-cultured adventitious roots and stem cells are alternatives to wild and field-cultivated ginseng. In this study, we assessed the in vitro xanthine oxidase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of saponin extracts among cultured cambial meristematic cells (CMC), adventitious ginseng roots (AGR), and field-cultivated ginseng roots (CGR). The xanthine oxidase (XO) and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities were determined by uric acid estimation and the p-NPG method, respectively. Spectrophotometry and the Folin-Ciocalteu, aluminum nitrate, and Bradford methods were employed to ascertain the total saponins and phenolic, flavonoid, and protein contents. The calculated IC50 values for total saponin extracts against XO and α-glucosidase were 0.665, 0.844, and >1.6 mg/mL and 0.332, 0.745, and 0.042 mg/mL for AGR, CMC, CGR, respectively. Comparing the total saponin, crude protein, and total phenolic contents revealed that AGR > CMC > CGR. To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first report on the in vitro comparison of xanthine oxidase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities among AGR, CMC, and CGR. The findings offer valuable insights into the development of hypoglycemic and antihyperuricemic medicinal, nutraceutical, and functional products utilizing AGR and CMC.

Structural Identification of Ginsenoside Based on UPLC-QTOF-MS of Black Ginseng (Panax Ginseng C.A. Mayer).

Black ginseng (BG) is processed ginseng traditionally made in Korea via the steaming and drying of ginseng root through three or more cycles, leading to changes in its appearance due to the Maillard reaction on its surface, resulting in a dark coloration. In this study, we explored markers for differentiating processed ginseng by analyzing the chemical characteristics of BG. We elucidated a new method for the structural identification of ginsenoside metabolites and described the features of processed ginseng using UPLC-QTOF-MS in the positive ion mode. We confirmed that maltose, glucose, and fructose, along with L-arginine, L-histidine, and L-lysine, were the key compounds responsible for the changes in the external quality of BG. These compounds can serve as important metabolic markers for distinguishing BG from conventionally processed ginseng. The major characteristics of white ginseng, red ginseng, and BG can be distinguished based on their high-polarity and low-polarity ginsenosides, and a precise method for the structural elucidation of ginsenosides in the positive ion mode is presented.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Vacuum Distillate from Panax ginseng Root on LPS-Induced RAW264.7 Cells.

Panax ginseng has been widely applied as an important herb in traditional medicine to treat numerous human disorders. However, the inflammatory regulation effect of P. ginseng distillate (GSD) has not yet been fully assessed. To determine whether GSD can ameliorate inflammatory processes, a GSD was prepared using the vacuum distillation process for the first time, and the regulation effect on lipopolysaccharide-induced macrophages was assessed. The results showed that GSD effectively inhibited nitric oxide (NO) formation and activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA in murine macrophage cell, but not cyclooxygenase-2 production. The mRNA expression pattern of tumor necrosis factor alpha and IL-6 were also reduced by GSD. Furthermore, we confirmed that GSD exerted its anti-inflammatory effects by downregulating c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation, the extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation, and signaling pathway of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). Our findings revealed that the inflammatory regulation activity of GSD could be induced by iNOS and NO formation inhibition mediated by regulation of nuclear factor kappa B and p38/JNK MAPK pathways.

Uptake and accumulation of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in a soil-ginseng system and toxicological mechanisms on ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer)

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is regarded as a priority environmental pollutant. This study explored the adsorption and accumulation of DEHP within the ginseng-soil system and the mechanism of DEHP toxicity to ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer). Under exposure to 22.10 mg/kg DEHP in soil, DEHP mainly accumulated in ginseng leaves (20.28 mg/kg), stems (4.84 mg/kg) and roots (2.00 mg/kg) after 42 days. The oxidative damage, metabolism, protein express of ginseng were comprehensively measured and analyzed. The results revealed that MDA presented an activation trend in ginseng stems and leaves after 42 days of DEHP exposure, while the opposite trend was observed for POD. Levels of ginsenoside metabolites Rg2, Rg3, Rg5, Rd, Rf and CK decreased in the ginseng rhizosphere exudates under DEHP stress. Further investigations revealed that DEHP disrupts ginsenoside synthesis by inducing glycosyltransferase (GS) and squalene synthase (SS) protein interactions. Molecular docking indicated that DEHP could stably bind to GS and SS by intermolecular forces. These findings provide new information on the ecotoxicological effect of DEHP on ginseng root.

Panax ginseng root aqueous extract mediated biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles under ultrasound condition and investigation of the treatment of human lung adenocarcinoma with following the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway

In the current study, ultrasound-assisted biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles was described according to green chemistry rules by the aqueous extract of root’s Panax ginseng. The biosynthesized Ag NPs were characterized using different techniques, like FE-SEM, UV–Vis, EDS, elemental mapping and TEM. The shape, morphology and elemental composition of the prepared silver nanoparticles were studied by the FE-SEM and EDS data. The TEM image shows the monodispersed and spherical nanoparticles of size ranging from 20 to 40 nm. Colorimetric DPPH tests were done to assess the antioxidant capacity of Ag NPs and the MTT method to investigate the cytotoxicity against PC14 lung adenocarcinoma cell line as well as the normal HUVEC cell linein vitro. The IC50 of the Ag NPs nanocomposite was 157 µg/mL against PC14 cancer cell line. The Ag NPs nanocomposite increased the LDH release, apoptosis and ROS levels and regulated the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in the PC14 cells.

Phytochemistry of Red Ginseng, a Steam-Processed Panax ginseng.

Asian ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C.A.Meyer, occupies a prominent position in the list of best-selling natural products in the world. There are two major types of ginseng roots: white ginseng and red ginseng, each with numerous preparations. White ginseng is prepared by air-drying fresh Asian ginseng roots after harvest. Red ginseng is prepared by steaming roots in controlled conditions using fresh or raw Asian ginseng. Red ginseng is commonly used in Asian countries due to its unique chemical profile, different therapeutic efficacy, and increased stability. Compared with the widespread research on white ginseng, the study of red ginseng is relatively limited. In this paper, after a botanical feature description, the structures of different types of constituents in red ginseng are systematically described, including naturally occurring compounds and those resulting from the steam processing. In red ginseng phytochemical studies, the number of published reports on ginsenosides is significantly higher than that for other constituents. Up to now, 57 ginsenosides have been isolated and characterized in red ginseng. The structural transformation pathways during steaming have been summarized. In comparison with white ginseng, red ginseng also contains other constituents, including polyacetylenes, Maillard reaction products, other types of glycosides, lignans, amino acids, fatty acids, and polysaccharides, which have also been presented. Appropriate analytical methods are necessary for differentiating between unprocessed white ginseng and processed red ginseng. Specific marker compounds and chemical profiles have been used to discriminate red ginseng from white ginseng and adulterated commercial products. Additionally, a brief phytochemical profile comparison has been made between white ginseng and black ginseng, and the latter is another type of processed ginseng prepared from white or red ginseng by steaming several times. In conclusion, to ensure the safe and effective use of red ginseng, phytochemical and analytical studies of its constituents are necessary and even crucial.

Ginseng Root as Old Traditional Medicine and Therapeutic Effects on Cancer

Ginseng Root as Old Traditional Medicine and Therapeutic Effects on Cancer

Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of Panax ginseng and Hedysarum neglectum root crop extracts.

In order to ensure the timely and uninterrupted supply of medicinal plant raw materials, the methods of cultivation of plant cell cultures, namely, the production of plant root cultures, are relevant. In this paper, the geroprotective potential of Hedysarum neglectum Ledeb and Panax ginseng C. A. Mey root cultures is studied. They were cultured under in vitro conditions by transforming the rhizome (H. neglectum) and seed seedlings (P. ginseng) with Agrobacterium rhizogenes 15834 Swiss. To identify the geroprotective potential, the antimicrobial disc-diffusion method and the antioxidant activity were analyzed by titration of KMnO4 extracts of plant root cultures. The qualitative and quantitative composition was analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography, thin-layer chromatography, and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. In the course of the work, the presence of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of plant root culture extracts was established. Biologically active substances contained in extracts of Hedysarum neglectum Ledeb root crops and Panax ginseng C. A. Mey are characterized by geroprotective potential, so they can act as a source of natural antioxidants in the functional nutrition of the geroprotective orientation.

A Qualitative Analysis of Cultured Adventitious Ginseng Root's Chemical Composition and Immunomodulatory Effects.

The cultivation of ginseng in fields is time-consuming and labor-intensive. Thus, culturing adventitious ginseng root in vitro constitutes an effective approach to accumulating ginsenosides. In this study, we employed UPLC-QTOF-MS to analyze the composition of the cultured adventitious root (cAR) of ginseng, identifying 60 chemical ingredients. We also investigated the immunomodulatory effect of cAR extract using various mouse models. The results demonstrated that the cAR extract showed significant activity in enhancing the immune response in mice. The mechanism underlying the immunomodulatory effect of cAR was analyzed through network pharmacology analysis, revealing potential 'key protein targets', namely TNF, AKT1, IL-6, VEGFA, and IL-1β, affected by potential 'key components', namely the ginsenosides PPT, F1, Rh2, CK, and 20(S)-Rg3. The signaling pathways PI3K-Akt, AGE-RAGE, and MAPK may play a vital role in this process.

A LITERATURE REVIEW: THE POTENTIAL OF NATURAL INGREDIENTS AS ANTIDEPRESSANTS

Changes in mood, physical well-being, and behavior, such as sleep and hunger patterns, psychomotor abilities, concentration, anhedonia, exhaustion, hopelessness, helplessness, and suicidal thoughts, define a mental illness known as depression. Alternative therapies that can be used to avoid these side effects include herbal medicines from several types of plants. This literature review aims to determine the potential of natural ingredients that have antidepressant activity in plant biomarkers, methods of obtaining biomarkers, effective dose, and their mechanisms of action. Article searches use keywords ("Herbal plant" OR "Medicinal plant" OR "Herbal" OR "Plant Extract" OR "Plant Extracts") AND ("Antidepressant" OR "Antidepressive") AND ("Mechanism of antidepressant") using the Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases. The final results included eight research articles in the systematic review that met the inclusion criteria. Plants that have antidepressant potential include flowers of Viola odorata L, Crocus sativus, Impatiens glandulifera, and Leptadenia hastata (Pers.) and Alpinia zerumbet, seeds of Nigella sativa, root of Panax ginseng, and Achyranthes aspera. Keywords: Antidepressants, Natural Ingredients, Literature Review

Effect of Methods of Adding Red Ginseng on some Productive Traits of Laying Hens

For 12 weeks, from October 15, 2022, to January 7, 2023, researchers at Al-Muthanna University’s Agricultural Research and Experiment Station examined the impact of different methods for administering red ginseng root on a selection of laying hens’ blood parameters. Sixty 43-week-old ISA Brown laying hens were split into four treatments, each with fifteen hens. Each treatment’s pens were three metres by three metres, and each pen was divided into thirds so that each third included five hens. The following procedures were used: In T1 (the placebo group), the regular diet was served without any alterations. T2: Combine 1 gramme of alcoholic extract with 1 litre of water. T3: The diet included 1 gramme of powdered red ginseng root per kilogramme of feed. T4: Ten millilitres of red ginseng root aqueous extract per one litre of water was added to the supply. The results show that compared to the control treatment, all treatments in which ginseng root powder was administered significantly increased the egg production ratio, egg weight, egg mass, and feed conversion factor of the laying hens tested. The best outcomes, by a wide margin, were achieved with the addition of alcoholic extract to drinking water.

Analysis of the essential oil composition of fresh Panax ginseng root and identification of novel phenylalkenal compounds

This study investigated the essential oil composition of fresh Panax ginseng root and identified novel compounds from ginseng oil. The oil was divided into five fractions (neutral, basic, phenolic, acidic, and aldehydic). In total, 149 constituents, including 29, 19, and 38 compounds in the basic, phenolic, and aldehydic fractions, respectively, were identified by gas chromatography (GC) and GC-mass spectrometry (MS). The primary constituents of the total ginseng volatile oil were α-humulene (13.91% as a peak area), bicyclogermacrene (13.59%), β-caryophyllene (8.24%), α-neoclovene (7.78%), and α- and β-panasinsenes (5.14% and 7.53%). The primary constituents of the basic fraction were 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine (35.51%), 3-sec-butyl-2-methoxy-5-methylpyrazine (31.54%), 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine (8.64%), and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine (8.40%), whereas in the phenolic fraction, these were benzoic (25.40%), octanoic (11.57%), nonanoic (9.16%), propionic (6.35%), and decanoic acids (6.16%). The primary constituents of the aldehydic fraction were 4-(2-furyl)-3-buten-2-one (23.41%), benzaldehyde (10.18%), cis-2-heptanal (9.42%), 3-(α-furyl)-propenal (8.51%), and 2-phenyl-2-butenal (7.28%). Among these, the phenylalkenal compounds, including 2-phenyl-2-butenal, 2-methyl-3-phenyl-2-propenal, 5-methyl-2-phenyl-2-pentenal, 5-methyl-2-phenyl-2-hexenals, 2-phenyl-2-octenal, and 2-phenyl-2-nonenal, were newly identified in this study as ginseng volatile constituents. Furthermore, 2-phenyl-2-nonenal was identified as a plant-based volatile constituent for the first time in this study.

Molecular Identification of Endophytic Fungi from Javanese Ginseng (Talinum paniculatum Gaertn.) and their Potential against Phytopathogens

Endophytes from medicinal plants have been demonstrated to produce bioactive chemicals with antibacterial capabilities. Previous research found many endophytes in Javanese ginseng roots. Identifying and comprehending the benefits of endophyte microorganisms is critical for boosting plant growth and defense. The aim of this study was to identify endophytic microbes from Javanese ginseng with antifungal activity. In this present study, two isolates the GJ-9 and FN-1, were analyzed using NL1/NL4 and ITS1/4 primers. The amplification and sequencing of the ITS and the D1-D2 LSU rRNA gene were performed. The D1-D2 LSU rRNA sequence analysis results showed that GJ-9 has similarities with Candida Spencermartinsiae with 99.82% percentage identity, while FN-1 has been identified as Aspergillus flavus according to the ITS sequence analysis result with 99.83% percentage identity. Antagonistic assays showed both isolates displayed considerable antagonistic ability against Rhizopus stolonifera, Pythium sp., Botrytis sp., and Fusarium sp, with overall inhibition rate were over 50%. The Aspergillus flavus showed the better ability to inhibit the growth of Phytium sp. (74.90 %) and Rhizopus stolonifera (60 %), while the Candida Spencermartinsiae is better for controlling Botrytis sp. (55.68%) and Fusarium sp. (60.39 %). The result suggests the endophyte from Javanese ginseng can be used as an agent for controlling various plant diseases; furthermore, it could lead to a reduction of agrochemical inputs.