German Police Officers Research Articles

Training German police officers to tackle racial discrimination: Professional virtues between compliance with legal norms and dialogue with affected groups

Abstract Educational formats that seek to raise police officers’ awareness about racial discrimination often focus on formal violations of the principle of non-discrimination or canons of values. First, based on a critical discussion of positions on discrimination in policing and proposals for police training in Germany this paper argues based on human rights for a broader understanding of the challenge to tackle racial discrimination in policing. In reference to neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics, competencies for proactive encounters with affected groups will thereby be explored. Second, it outlines a framework for educational formats on this issue that address police officers as whole persons, who should, in the context of their professional practice, develop the virtue to understand the perspectives of and to build relationships of care with marginalized individuals. An example of a tested format that integrates perspectives from civil society will be presented.

The (in-)visibility of difference: gay and lesbian identities and the German police

While modern police organizations have included diversity in their portfolio of guiding orientations, there has been little research on the sexual identity of police officers and their perceptions in Germany. Based on current scientific discourses on the construction and impact of human categories, this article provides an explorative empirical-qualitative analysis of views, perceptions, and experiences of German police officers with gay and lesbian sexual identities. We conducted in-depth semi-structured interview with officers who identified themselves as gay or lesbian (n = 8). Applying a reflexive thematic approach to data analysis, the results point to an internal police dominance of a two-gender identity concept, in which heterosexual masculinity forms the guiding value and third possibilities remain largely invisible. The findings offer a reason to critically reflect on the existing dominance of heterosexually formatted distinctions and thus to further expand German police organization’s claim to diversity.

Job Resources in the Police: Main and Interaction Effects of Social and Organizational Resources

The Job Demands-Resources model postulates job resources to directly promote employees’ mental health and to interact with job demands. Recent meta-analyses revealed differential effects of social and organizational resources. Studies of job resources in police officers predominantly included social resources and have rarely examined differential effects, interaction effects, and both negative and positive mental health outcomes. The present study provides a comprehensive test of job resources for the mental health of police officers: Main and interaction effects of social and organizational resources were tested on burnout symptoms and job satisfaction. Survey data were collected from 493 German police officers. Social (support, sense of community, leadership quality) and organizational resources (influence at work, possibilities for development, meaning of work), demands (quantitative, emotional, work privacy conflicts), burnout symptoms, and job satisfaction were assessed with an online questionnaire. Stepwise regression analyses and moderator analyses (PROCESS) were performed. Job resources contributed to the prediction of burnout symptoms and job satisfaction beyond job demands. Organizational resources explained substantial variance beyond social resources. Sense of community and possibilities for development were the most influential resources, and work privacy conflicts were the most influential demand. In addition, work privacy conflicts strengthened the association between sense of community and job satisfaction. The study confirms that social as well as organizational resources are protective for police officers’ mental health. Sense of community and possibilities for development emerged as promising starting points for measures to prevent burnout and promote job satisfaction.

How do German police officers of varying empathy levels react to different styles of interviewing a suspected sex offender?

The United Nations' ‘Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment’, disseminated an extensive ‘Universal protocol’ on interviewing/interrogation styles in summer 2021. Its implementation across the world is likely to be influenced by current practices in various countries (such as the rapport building and empathy employed). The aims of the present study were (i) to examine German police officers' estimates of suspect interviews in four different styles of suspect interviews (‘humane’, dominant’, ‘theme development’ or ‘neutral’); and (ii) to see whether interviewers' level of empathy is associated with their reactions to the interview styles. There were significant effects found in the dominant interviewing style regarding the participants' estimation of (i) interviewer fairness towards suspect, (ii) interviewer's understanding on suspect's thought-process toward the crime, (iii) whether the interviewer was aggressive, or (iv) humane, and (v) whether the interview was conducted well. Officers' empathy level only had an effect for the dominant interviewing style.

Incorporating mental health literacy and trauma-informed law enforcement: A participative survey on police officers' attitudes and knowledge concerning mental disorders, traumatization, and trauma sensitivity.

The main goal of this study was to investigate how persons with symptoms of traumatization and other mental disorders influence daily policing work. In total, 2,228 German police officers filled out a questionnaire (28.2% female, 71.8% male). The data were assessed using Mann-Whitney U and chi-square tests. The results show that 14.3% of the individuals police officers encountered in their daily work had been traumatized, according to police officer observations. With respect to mental health literacy, depression was the best-known disorder (M = 13.46) among police officers, and anxiety was the least known disorder (M = 10.88). According to police officers' responses, 75.5% of the persons thought to be suffering from mental health disorders or traumatization did not file a complaint because interrogation, investigations, or legal proceedings were perceived as too stressful. More than half of the participating police officers (50.4%) recommended the expansion of specialized training programs for law enforcement personnel, and more than one third recommended an increase in collaboration with professionals (39.1%), such as psychiatrists and psychologists. Law enforcement officers often have contact with persons who show symptoms of traumatization or other mental disorders. Their general knowledge about mental disorders and regarding traumatization in particular is in need of expansion. The additional strain caused by legal proceedings prevents reporting of criminal incidents to the police from the respondents' viewpoint. This impediment to law enforcement needs to be addressed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

“The Situation is Quite Different.” Perceptions of Violent Conflicts and Training Among German Police Officers

Being a police officer bears the inherent risk of encountering violent conflicts while on duty. Federal reports on violence against German police officers document an increase in registered acts since 2011. However, apart from statistical data, little is known about the qualitive specifics of violent encounters within police operations. At the same time, national and international data point to problems of transfer between training and the field. Against this background, the following study presents the expert views of 29 German Federal police officers which have been interviewed about qualitative specifics of conflict dynamics they had experienced during operations and the extent to which they felt prepared for these situations by means of professional training. Results of the study reveal that violent encounters are perceived as complex, dynamic and ambiguous in nature, in turn demanding high standards of police officers’ awareness, decision-making and interaction skills, ranging from de-escalation to fighting. Moreover, the majority of police officers reported that police training lacked adequate preparation. The findings are discussed through the lenses of professional policing and police training in Germany. For the further empowerment of police organisations, police trainers and police trainer education, we argue that a solid and methodically controlled knowledge base on situational parameters of violent encounters is key.

Increasing Mental Health Literacy in Law Enforcement to Improve Best Practices in Policing-Introduction of an Empirically Derived, Modular, Differentiated, and End-User Driven Training Design.

Objective: Law enforcement officers often have contact to persons who show symptoms of mental disorders. Adequately designed training is necessary for developing the best possible practices in policing when coming into contact with mentally ill people, and may help to expand their general knowledge on mental disorders. To achieve a sustainable implementation of training content in daily policing work, the acceptance and proactive integration of methods by the training participants is essential.Method: This study investigates an exemplary modular training curriculum based on a survey with 2,228 German police officers (28.2% female, 71.8% male) concerning their needs and challenges when coming into contact with persons with mental disorders. This empirical end-user driven approach was used to adapt existing training concepts to the current needs and interests of law enforcement personnel in order to maximize compliance.Results: The training program draft includes basic modules which are intended to be of direct interest to all police officers, such as mental disorders with high policing relevance, encountering suicidal patients, (non-directive) communication and de-escalation skills, and mental hygiene in policing. They are arranged in more specialized modules that address specific target group audiences within police forces and the training curriculum provides information about genuine risks and self-protection, trauma sensitivity, and interaction with children and victims among other contents. The self-selectable, modular, and empirically-based continued training program also includes an introduction to local mental health service professionals and networks, trialogue sequences, and situational role play scenarios.Conclusion: Due to frequent contact law enforcement officers have to mentally ill people, improved training designed to maximize knowledge and the integration of trained methods is necessary. Gaining acceptance and proactive support by trainees is ensured through end-user driven implementation of specialized and differentiated up-to-date training programs. Our results showcase how police officers' perspectives on persons with mental illnesses is a main aspect that can and should be used to encourage training course designs.

Organizational culture, stress, and coping strategies in the police: an empirical investigation

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the relationships between organizational culture, stress, and coping strategies in police organizations. In an online survey, 152 German police officers described their workgroups in terms of stressors (e.g. overtime demands, traumatic events), coping strategies (e.g. exercising, drinking alcohol), and shared values (e.g. masculinity, solidarity). Multiple regression models were tested to examine a) the effect of stress on police culture and b) the effect of stress and police culture on coping. Conservative-male culture is stronger in workgroups with high operational stress. Predictors of maladaptive coping are organizational stress and conservative-male culture. Diligence culture is negatively associated with maladaptive coping. Overall, the study indicates that police culture depends on the composition and stress level of a workgroup and influences the way officers cope with stress. The main limitation of the study is the unclear direction of causality. However, our findings have important implications for leadership and psychological intervention within the police.

Exercise capacity, cardiovascular and metabolic risk of the sample of German police officers in a descriptive international comparison

Background: The police force has the mandate to protect citizens and enforce the law for public safety. Employment in the police force is recognized as a dangerous occupation and characterized by job-related physical hazards. Therefore, good health and adequate physical condition are necessary. This study aimed to determine cardiovascular, cardiorespiratory, and metabolic risk parameters of German police officers (POs) in comparison to POs from other nations.Methods: 55 male police officers from Germany participated in the survey. We examined anthropometric measurements, cardiovascular/metabolic risk factors and blood parameters. Additionally, we calculated 10-year cardiovascular risk using the Framingham Risk Score. The diagnosis of metabolic syndrome bases on the criteria of the International Diabetes Federation. We assessed cardiorespiratory status by exercise spirometry.Results: The analyzed group of POs demonstrated a high prevalence of pre obesity (BMI: 28.0±3.2 kg/m², waist circumference: 97.8±12.4 cm). 61.8 % of POs showed an increased waist circumference. POs showed high prevalence of abnormal values of triglyceride (n: 24, 43,6%), and systolic (n: 29, 52,7%) and diastolic (n: 27, 49%) blood pressure. The average 10-year cardiovascular risk (by Framingham) was classified as moderate (9.6 ± 7.4 %). 32 % (n: 18) of POs in our study group were diagnosed with metabolic syndrome. Maximal relative oxygen uptake of POs was 34.1 ± 8.0 ·ml/kg-1 ·min-1.Conclusions: To our knowledge, this study was one of the first to assess data on cardiovascular health, metabolic syndrome and cardiorespiratory status of police officers in Germany. The results of our study demonstrated an increased cardiovascular and metabolic risk and decreased cardiorespiratory fitness in German police officers. The present study results underline the need to implement health-promoting interventions and concepts like corporate sports activities or nutrition courses to counteract cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors. We have to reduce the subsequent development of cardiovascular and metabolic disease in this occupational group.

Dimensions of police culture – a quantitative analysis

PurposeMany authors describe police culture as a relevant determinant of officers' health, policing behavior and reaction to change. Investigation of such relationships requires an appropriate instrument for measuring police culture.Design/methodology/approachThis paper proposes a questionnaire containing 20 values that are characteristic of police culture (e.g. masculinity, loyalty, solidarity). In an online survey, 153 German police officers described their last workgroups in terms of how typical these values are. Besides conducting item and factor analyses, multiple regression models were tested to explore the effect of group characteristics on police culture.FindingsA four-factor solution, comprising (1) conservative-male culture, (2) institutional pride culture, (3) team culture and (4) diligence culture, seems to fit the data best. Significant predictors of the police culture total score are percentage of male officers, average age of the group and service in a problematic district.Research limitations/implicationsOverall, the results indicate that police culture is a measurable multidimensional construct, which substantially depends on the composition and the operational area of the workgroup. A limitation of the study is the retrospective and subjective assessment of cultural values.Originality/valueThe questionnaire presented in this paper depicts the culture of police workgroups in a differentiated way and is able to detect cultural variation within the police. Future research could draw on the questionnaire to investigate determinants and consequences of police culture.

Enteric pathogens in German police officers after predominantly tropical deployments - A retrospective assessment over 5 years.

IntroductionThe study was performed to assess the infection risk of German police officers on predominantly tropical deployments, mostly United Nations missions, with gastrointestinal pathogens.MethodsPolice officers were offered PCR-based screening for gastrointestinal pathogens before and after deployment. The screening panel comprised enteroinvasive bacteria (Salmonella spp., Shigella spp./enteroinvasive Escherichia coli, Campylobacter jejuni, and Yersinia spp.), enteropathogenic protozoa (Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., and Cyclospora cayetanensis), as well as enteric helminths (Ancyclostoma spp., Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis, Hyme-nolepis nana, Necator americanus, African Schistosoma spp., Strongyloides stercoralis, Taenia saginata, Taenia solium, and Trichuris trichiura).ResultsG. duodenalis (n = 3), C. jejuni (n = 2), Salmonella spp. (n = 1), Shigella spp./enteroinvasive E. coli (n = 3), and S. stercoralis (n = 3) were detect in 12 out of 133 (9.0%) police officers. The majority had shown gastrointestinal symptoms on deployment and all were asymptomatic at the time of medical assessment. The major infection sites were Sub-Saharan Africa followed by Northern Africa and the Middle East.ConclusionsDeployment of police officers to tropical deployment sites on United Nations missions is associated with a considerable acquisition risk of gastrointestinal pathogens in a quantitatively relevant minority. Post-deployment screening is advisable to facilitate therapeutic and hygiene-related consequences.

How Do Police Officers Experience Interactions with People with Mental Illness?

Studies show that encounters between police officers and people with mental illness occur frequently and can prove to be challenging and, in some cases, dangerous for all parties involved. Little is known about how officers perceive interactions with persons with a mental health condition. This study addresses this research gap by examining frequencies, request for police dispatch, challenges, and subjective perceptions of such interactions. A total of 958 police officers from Hamburg (Germany) completed a questionnaire assessing the frequency of police dispatches involving persons with mental illness, including request for police dispatch and subjective challenges and perceptions associated with the interaction. Findings suggest that the majority of officers experienced interactions with persons with mental illness as conflictual due to behaviors they perceived as unpredictable and irrational including verbal and physical aggressions. The data also showed significant differences between female and male officers in regard to what they perceived as challenging. A total of 27.9% of officers felt anxious during the interactions. Less knowledge about mental health problems was associated with greater anxiety. The study revealed the German police officers’ subjective perception of police dispatches involving people with mental illness. The results underline the importance of fostering a partnership between the police and the mental health care system in day-to-day police routine practices and through education and training programs. Training should focus on improving the recognition of mental disorders and specific communication skills.

How Criminal Offenders Perceive Police Officers’ Appearance: Effects of Uniforms and Tattoos on Inmates’ Attitudes

ABSTRACTBoth, the number of people wearing visible body modifications, e.g., tattoos, and their acceptance in society have been significantly increased. Thus, rules and regulations of German police officers’ appearance prohibiting to show tattoos during police services are challenged. Basically, such standards aim to minimize risk factors in police service and to maximize safety at work, thus fostering police operations and finally promoting a favorable image of the police organization. Within the scope of the “Police Officer Appearance”-project (2016–2018) of the Rhineland-Palatinate Police University, we aimed to answer the question how police officers in uniform with visible tattoos are evaluated by others. Within a sub-project, we focused on an important target group in police services: criminal offenders. While previous studies found evidence that wearing a uniform was associated with more favorable ratings of police officers as compared to people in civilian clothing (“uniform-effect”), showing a tattoo had a rather detrimental effect of attitudes toward police officers (“tattoo-effect”). In the present study, we investigate whether these effects transfer to the sub-population of criminal offenders. A total of N = 98 inmates of a correctional institution in Rhineland-Palatinate participated in the study. Inmates were presented pictures of police officers in police uniform or civilian clothing with or without visible tattoos. Results revealed the “uniform-effect” among inmates, i.e., a more positive evaluation of police officers wearing police uniform. However, the “tattoo-effect” was not present in this subgroup. Implications for theory, limitations and future research directions, as well as practical implications are discussed.

Social support and work engagement in police work

Purpose Job resources are positively related to work engagement within the motivational process of the job demands–resources model (JD–R). Little is known about mediating mechanisms within that process. The purpose of this paper is to examine self-efficacy and work–privacy conflict as mediators of the relationship between social support and work engagement in a sample of police officers. Design/methodology/approach In total, 811 German police officers completed a cross-sectional online survey that assessed social support by supervisors and co-workers, work–privacy conflict, self-efficacy and work engagement. Structural equation modeling was conducted. Findings Self-efficacy and work–privacy conflict partially mediated the relationship between social support and work engagement. The direct effect of social support and work engagement was confirmed, too. Practical implications Health promotion approaches in police work should foster social support by supervisors and co-workers. Social support eases challenges of work–life balance and self-efficacy and promotes police officers’ work engagement. Originality/value The findings validate the motivational process of the JD-R model in a sample of police officers. Job resources and personal resources are interrelated in the prediction of work engagement. Moreover, job resources facilitate dealing with specific job demands, which promotes work engagement, too.

Untapped Potential? A Survey Study with German Police Officers into Suspect Interviewing Practices and the Strategic Use of Evidence

ABSTRACTThe Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) technique is a promising suspect interviewing approach that takes the potentially incriminating information against a suspect (i.e., the evidence) into account and aims at actively eliciting diagnostic cues to deception and truth. The technique was successfully tested in multiple research studies and has been introduced to practitioners in different parts of the world (including Germany). However, not much is known about German police officers’ state of practice, their knowledge, as well as how they perceive and evaluate SUE. The current survey study is the first attempt to generate knowledge on this topic by collecting data from police officers from the states of Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg. The majority of police officers kept a balance between applying non-standardized/standardized interviewing approaches, discussing preplanned/spontaneous themes in the interview and making analytical/gut decisions on when and how to use evidence during suspect interviews. Regarding their suspect interviewing training, only a minority of the officers reported to have received training on how to use evidence during an interview. These findings – in combination with the observation that the majority of the officers did not see potential obstacles with the applicability of the SUE technique – suggest a major untapped potential of strategic evidence disclosure techniques within current suspect interviewing in Germany.

HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CRIMINAL CASE’S NO. 31 MATERIALS DEALING WITH THE DESTRUCTION OF THE AUDRINI VILLAGE’S INHABITANTS BY NAZI GERMANY’S OCCUPATION POWER

Audrini has been an administrative center in Rezekne region since 1990. Before the Second World War, Audrini was one of the villages in Makaseni rural municipality populated by old believers. The tragedy of Audrini is destruction of Audrini inhabitants by Nazi German occupation institutions (22.12.1941. – 01.04.1942). Escaped prisoners of Red Army were hidden in the village. The Nazis burnt down village buildings. In the Ancupanu hills, arrested inhabitants of the village were shot; 30 men – inhabitants of Audrini – were publicly shot at the Marketplace in Rezekne. The punishment action was done in accordance with the German Security Police Commander’s orders; in the action local collaborators – Rezekne and Malta police officers – participated. Criminal case No 31 was initiated on August 5th, 1964. In 1965, an open trial in Riga was held (11.10.1965.–10.30.1965), where six former German police officers were accused of Audrini people killing. Criminal case No.31 consists of 37 huge volumes. Basically, there are three kinds of documents: 1) protocols of witnesses’ testimonies; 2) Rezekne region police reports and correspondence with higher instances; 3) the documents related to criminal investigation process. The paper reveals the reasons for the initiation of the Audrini village’s criminal case, the content of the documents available in the criminal case. The reasons for destruction of Audrini inhabitants are stated as well as the revealing of Audrini tragedy in Soviet propaganda and arts after the completion of criminal proceedings.

Xenophobic attitudes in German police officers

In recent years, the proportion of the population with a migrant background has increased in the Federal Republic of Germany. We investigated whether young German police officers hold xenophobic attitudes at the beginning of their bachelor studies and how intercultural competence and communication training modules affect the development of those attitudes. In a 4-year longitudinal study, we assessed police officers’ xenophobic attitudes at the beginning of the first academic year, after basic study (year 1), after main study (year 2), and within the first year of professional practice (year 4). There was a significant decrease in xenophobic attitudes within the 3 years of professional education, followed by a slight increase within the first year of professional practice. Throughout the 4-year period, xenophobic attitudes decreased significantly, pointing to the effectiveness of the training modules integrated into the bachelor program and to the necessity to continue intercultural training within police departments.

Leadership climate prevents emotional exhaustion in German police officers

Police officers are exposed to a high amount of work effort in their everyday employment. This increases their risk of developing emotional exhaustion, the key symptom of the burnout syndrome. Previous research suggests that leadership climate is important for employees’ health and thus might be protective against emotional exhaustion. This study investigated whether a positive leadership climate prevents emotional exhaustion and buffers the negative impact of work effort in police officers. Data from a cross-sectional health survey in a German police department ( N = 570) were used to test the assumptions. Results of the hierarchical linear regression analysis showed that high work effort was correlated with high levels of emotional exhaustion and positive leadership climate was associated with low levels of emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, both predictor variables interacted, indicating a buffer effect of a positive leadership climate under stressful working conditions. This is the first study to show both direct and indirect protective effects of a positive leadership climate in police officers. In police work, stressful working conditions such as high work effort are hard to avoid. Thus, it is crucial to promote preventive factors such as a positive leadership climate to protect police officers’ health. Suggestions of how police supervisors and departments might establish a positive leadership climate are presented.

Job Demands, Job Resources, and Well-being in Police Officers\u2014a Resource-Oriented Approach

This study examined the association between job characteristics, namely job demands and job resources, and mental health outcomes in terms of emotional exhaustion and well-being among police officers. Eight hundred forty-three German police officers participated in a cross-sectional online survey. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the validity of the dual process model of the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) framework in the context of police work. Job demands (verbal assaults by citizens, workload, and administrative stressors) predicted emotional exhaustion whereas job resources (team support, shared values, and perceived fairness) predicted well-being. Moreover, job resources were directly and negatively associated with emotional exhaustion. The findings confirm the capacity of job resources to simultaneously promote well-being and reduce emotional exhaustion. Work place interventions should thus not merely decrease job demands. To improve and protect police officers’ well-being, it is advisable to promote job resources. A supportive and fair organizational climate based on shared values is required to foster mental health in the context of police work.

The Role of Job Demands and Job Resources in the Development of Emotional Exhaustion, Depression, and Anxiety Among Police Officers

The aim of this study was to examine whether job demands and job resources predict depression and anxiety levels among police officers and whether emotional exhaustion plays a mediating role in this relationship. In addition, we tested whether job resources can serve as a protective factor against job-related strain. A total of 843 German police officers completed the questionnaires in an online survey. Results showed that job demands (high workload and assaults by citizens) predicted higher levels of depression and anxiety among police officers, mediated through emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, job resources (social support by colleagues, shared values, and positive leadership climate) buffered the effect of job demands on emotional exhaustion and were negatively associated with depression and anxiety levels. The identification of job demands and job resources that are related to psychological strain among police officers provides important information for interventions in order to promote mental health in the context of police work.