German Emigrants Research Articles

Nowhere Better Than Here?<br>The Subjective Well-Being of German Emigrants and Remigrants<br>

The paper investigates in the question if and how the subjective well-being (SWB) of German emigrants, German non-migrants, and German remigrants differ. Based on regression analyses of data from the European Social Survey (ESS) the analyses focus on life satisfaction and happiness as main indicators of SWB. It turns out that German emigrants show increased SWB compared to German non-migrants or remigrants. However, these findings cannot be explained by differences in the socio-economic or socio-demographic group structure. In fact, the increased SWB of emigrants is much more an effect of psychosocial differences and differences in the individual evaluation of household income.

Parallelisms and Distinctions: Chicago Jewry Once a Shadow of New York Jews

For centuries, Jews have lived in cities throughout Europe underneath the oppressive rule of tyrants, separatist and religious purist that have commonly shared and expressed an anti-Semitic antipathy for the Jewish community at large. The fact that Jews knew this to be their history is confirmed by the German writer L. Kompert in his essay “Off to America” written in 1848. Kompert writes, “Our history has been nothing but a silent acceptance of every torture, agony and restriction they have chosen to impose on us!” As a result of this European attitude, Kompert offers to his audience, the idea of emigration to America as an alternative solution to their perennial problems. Given this historical backdrop, this investigation will explore the emigration experience as it affected German and Eastern European Jewish emigrants that settled in the American cities of Chicago and New York. By examining many similarities and a few of the distinctions found between these two cities, it is hoped that this analysis will provide a more balanced view of the important Jewish developments that made Chicago’s contributions to the American Jewish heritage equal to New York’s contributions.

“Could You Not Turn Your Back on This Hunger Country?”: Food in the Migration Process of German Emigrants, 1816-1856

This article is concerned with the role that food played in all stages of the migration process of German immigrants to the United States between 1816 and 1856. Extracting information from letters, travel journals, and memoirs, I suggest that lack of food was a great motivation to consider emigration from Germany. Moreover, it was a central topic while the emigrants crossed the Atlantic on sailboats—a journey that often turned out to be a struggle for survival. In the United States, however, food was plentiful. I examine the ways in which German immigrants described this abundance to their relatives at home and how they utilized food and the food industry to establish their identity in the United States. In a larger sense, this paper seeks to relativize the importance of religious and political motivations for emigration and to point out that the desire to have access to food was instead at the center. It is, furthermore, an effort to describe the beginnings of the food culture of the largest distinct ethnic group of the United States: German Americans.

Allemandes au Chili

Anyone who knows the field of the history of Germans in Chile will immediately associate the title of this book with Jean-Pierre Blancpain’s classic study Allemands au Chili (1974). But reading twice they would note the difference that the single letter e makes. And, indeed, it makes all the difference, because some 36 years after Blancpain’s comprehensive work, Pauline Bilot asks new questions on a topic that deserves attention. Here women are the focus, and after having read this beautifully illustrated book, originally a master’s thesis, this reviewer is sure that its title is deserved.Based on a broad variety of sources, the book is organized according to topics starting with a historiographical overview. This is a very important synthesis for it shows the kind of work that has been done and the many lacunae that still exist if we approach Germans in Chile from a gender perspective. Indeed, Bilot is right when she states that at the time when Blancpain wrote, gender studies were simply not yet in focus. This has changed lately, for migration studies have developed into a major field of concern for gender scholars. In addition, Bilot demonstrates how work on German-Chileans has long suffered from ideological inhibitions. Either authors defended their subjects from the reproach of nationalist and national socialist sentiment, or they castigated them for it. This problem has recently gained new relevance due to the debates around the infamous “Colonia Dignidad.” The basic problem of evaluating the German-Chilean record has tainted both German and Chilean works on the topic. Perhaps for this reason, there is a strong “French connection” in writing the history of the German community in Chile.Bilot’s review of historiographical trends is most interesting when she writes about migration and gender. Indeed, these fields have long been separated too much. While US scholarship has certainly long since embarked on a course of combining the issues, European scholarship has been slow to adapt. Indeed, it is in the field of Latin American studies where this fruitful and interdisciplinary discussion has made most progress lately. Thus, in 2003 Alexandra Lübcke published a very interesting study about German-Chilean women’s discourse in the nineteenth century (“Welch ein Unterschied aber zwischen Europa und hier . . . ” [Frankfurt am Main: IKO, 2003]). Like Lübcke, who concentrated on letter writing, Bilot also uses the writing of women as a basic source. In addition, she has used documents of the Archivo Held in Santiago de Chile and of the Archivo van de Maele in Valdivia.It is numbers where Bilot’s original contribution to the field of study first becomes relevant. In studying the well-known statistics of German emigration she is able to demonstrate new dimensions as to the gender structure. The gender factor is important not only to the sum total of emigration but also to geographical origins and religious denominations, as Bilot aptly shows. Most interesting is her study of single women: the choice between autonomy and marriage was a major issue here and it becomes clear how ingeniously women lived up to the challenge of a foreign country. In chapter 3, Bilot presents a strong social history of female lives in the German communities of Chile. It is important to note that she does not start with the arrival at the foreign shore but takes into account the voyage. Here again, a major field of study that has come into historians’ focus lately — that is, travel writing — could learn a lot by including a gender perspective.More of this kind of work is necessary to gain a broader and more inclusive vision of the past. While the mere fact that German-Chileans had a stronger impact than their low numbers would imply is not in itself a new result, the significance of female voices within the process of ethnic genesis, in this case that of Deutschtum, becomes very clear from this study. It is interesting to read Bilot’s version of the female discourse on nation and gender, although this is more of an addition to what Lübcke has shown before.Again, it needed a French scholar to tell the whole story of Germans in Chile. Anyone interested in the topic will be glad to have this book, which for the future will certainly remain as much a classic as Blancpain’s has been for such a long time.

Exilpresse digital: Deutsche Exilzeitschriften, 1933-1945

When we think of the German emigration during the 1930s and ’40s, a number of figures, places and events perhaps come to mind. Thomas Mann, the most prominent of the illustrious group of Californian exiles, addressing world affairs from his home in Pacific Palisades, might seem familiar; or Hannah Arendt and the New School intellectuals bringing critical philosophy to New York may ring bells. Maybe equally memorable is the strange prospect of Herbert Marcuse and his Frankfurt School colleagues as organisation men in the Office of Strategic Services (the CIA's predecessor). Compared with these literary and academic celebrities, the political emigration is less well remembered. Yet, as this collection of newspapers and journals testifies, the many leading inter-war politicians who fled Germany were fervently active, issuing political tracts and information bulletins designed to inform and inspire fellow exiles, influence the politics of host nations and to testify to the existence of ‘The Other Germany’. This digital resource focuses primarily on the political emigration, featuring some of the best-known political exile publications, including the Social Democrats’ main discussion forum of the 1930s, Neuer Vorwärts, the leading liberal Pariser Tageblatt/Tageszeitung and the Sozialistische Warte, the most important platform for socialist debate among exiles in pre-war London (this collection is available at http://deposit.d-nb.de/online/exil/exil.htm).

Nassau Plantation: the evolution of a Texas-German slave plantation

In the 1840s an organization of German noblemen, the Mainzner Adelsverein, attempted to settle thousands of German emigrants on the Texas frontier. Nassau Plantation, located near modern-day Round Top, Texas, in northern Fayette County, was a significant part of this story. James C. Kearney has studied a wealth of original source material (much of it in German) to illuminate the history of the plantation and the larger goals and motivation of the Adelsverein. This new study highlights the problematic relationship of German emigrants to slavery. Few today realize that the society’s original colonization plan included ownership and operation of slave plantations. Ironically, the German settlements the society later established became hotbeds of anti-slavery and anti-secessionist sentiment. Several notable personalities graced the plantation, including Carl Prince of Solms-Braunfels, Johann Otto Freiherr von Meusebach, botanist F. Lindheimer, and the renowned naturalist Dr. Ferdinand Roemer. Dramatic events also occurred at the plantation, including a deadly shootout, a successful escape by two slaves (documented in an unprecedented way), and litigation over ownership that wound its way to both the Texas Supreme Court and the U.S. Supreme Court.

Disfluency Markers in L1 Attrition

Based on an analysis of the speech of long-term emigres of German and Dutch origin, the present investigation discusses to what extent hesitation patterns in language attrition may be the result of the creation of an interlanguage system, on the one hand, or of language-internal attrition patterns on the other. We compare speech samples elicited by a film retelling task from German emigres in Canada (n = 52) and the Netherlands (n = 50) and from Dutch emigres in Canada (n = 45) to retellings produced by predominantly monolingual control groups in Germany (n = 53) and the Netherlands (n = 45). Findings show that the attriting groups overuse empty pauses, repetitions, and retractions, whereas the distribution of filled pauses appears to conform more closely to the second language norm. An investigation of the location at which disfluency markers appear within the sentence suggests that they are indicators of difficulties that the attriters experience largely in the context of lexical retrieval.

Imperfect Justice: Fritz Lang's Fury (1936) and Cinema's Use of the Trial Form

This essay examines Fritz Lang's portrayal and use of justice in his first Hollywood film, Fury (1936) a film in which the main character, Joe Wilson (played by Spencer Tracy) is mistakenly arrested for a crime he did not commit. Lang was one of many notable German emigres who fled Nazi Germany for America and eventually Hollywood. He returned on several occasions to the theme of justice, which is my starting point for this article. Before analysing Fury in detail, in particular its final trial scene, the article compares the film briefly to other Lang films about the law such as Beyond a Reasonable Doubt. Lang's conception of justice differs from the dominant Hollywood view of the law, a realisation that is discussed in relation to other depictions of the law in Hollywood (such as Twelve Angry Men, To Kill a Mockingbird). In Lang's cinema, the law is not a fixed, stable and trustworthy institution, but rather one that is gullible and open to abuse. Lang places more faith in notions of personal moral justice, which win out in the end in Fury. This article also contextualises Fury and the work of Fritz Lang within existing discussions of the law and film, from which Lang is largely and notably absent.

The Attitude of German Emigre Doctors Towards Medicine under National Socialism

The attitudes of emigre doctors provide some insight into whether Nazi medical atrocities were something peculiar and unique or whether they were an extreme consequence of widespread thinking and scientific concepts in medicine at the time. Doctors of the sexual reform movement and the political left partly welcomed the Nazi sterilisation law as an implementation of their eugenic ideas. Some labelled Nazi medicine plainly as charlatanism which is a protective claim by those who dream the dream of the genetic improvement of humanity. Others saw in it a cold-blooded utilitarianism, symbolising the triumph of a soldierly spartan life over the intricacies and agonies of the human soul. For those, the most important lessons of the past lay in protecting the chronically ill, the handicapped, the psychologically ill and the poor from radical utopias aimed at'making the national body healthy'.

No place for Peace-Mongers: Charlie Chaplin, Monsieur Verdoux (1947) and Czechoslovak Communist Propaganda

During the escalation of the Cold War, Hollywood stars were framed in Czechoslovak Communist propaganda as possessing two qualities. Firstly, they were perceived in this most Western Soviet satelli...

Goodbye Germany - and then? Initial Results of a Pilot Survey of Emigrants from Germany (Goodbye Germany - und dann? Erste Ergebnisse einer Pilotstudie zur Befragung von Auswanderern aus Deutschland)

In contrast to the vast body of data on immigration to Germany, there is almost no scientifically valid data available on emigration flows from Germany and the factors motivating people to emigrate. In particular, there is an almost total lack of data on the living conditions of emigrants after their arrival in their new home countries. It is thus unsurpising that the German emigration research is currently based mainly on aggregated emigration data from official statistical sources as well as on non-representative quantitative and qualitative studies of specific emigrant groups. This was the point of departure for the pilot project “Life outside Germany,” which attempted to follow Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) participants who left Germany between 2002 and 2006, with the central aim of obtaining information about these individuals’ motivations for leaving and their living conditions in their new home countries. The project succeeded in locating 67 of the 288 former SOEP respondents who had been identified as emigrants. These individuals were sent the specially designed questionnaire by mail, and a total of 32 interviews were completed and returned. The present study starts by presenting the empirical findings from the pilot study. The main problem of the analysis lies less in the (controllable) selectivity of the respondents (32 of 288), and more the (still) extremely low case numbers, which do not allow scientifically sound conclusions to be drawn from the results. A further aim of this paper is therefore to provide an example of the basic research potential that lies in emigrant surveys, particularly in surveying SOEP respondents who have moved abroad. Linking information before and after the point of emigration creates new possibilities for empirical life-course research, which in turn - from an understanding of migration as a fundamentally open-ended process - open up new empirical perspectives for migration research.

German Impact and Influences on American Forestry until World War II

Abstract Natural resources of North America ensured the existence of German immigrants in the late 17th century. In Pennsylvania and North Carolina, measures for forest protection and sustainable forestry were invoked at an early date. Efforts were based on inventory of the resources and controlled use. During the 18th and 19th centuries, German emigration was boosted by the scarcity of wood. Proto-industry in Germany strongly depended on wood and coal resources, causing negative effects in the forest and environment. Increasing population and developing industrialization devastated the forests. International scientific contact in forestry started during the American Revolutionary War. German influence on American forestry began in 1873, when the Austro-Hungarian government hosted an international exhibition in Vienna. German forest scientists and politicians focused on sustainable forestry and initiated a fundamental forest education system in the United States. An intensive German–American exchange on a professional basis took place until the beginning of World War II. The acquired historical knowledge on this subject demonstrates that German and North American environmental perception had interacted considerably.

Not Allowed to Stay and Unable to Leave: Paul Kirchhoff's Quest for a Safe Haven, 1931–41

In 1936, the American anthropologist Melville Herskovits came to the assistance of Paul Kirchhoff, a German emigre, to prevent his deportation from the United States at the expiration of his visitor's visa. Herskovits urged him to see Samuel A Goldsmith, executive officer of the Jewish Charities of Chicago, to seek financial assistance to leave for Mexico to avoid deportation to Germany and almost certain incarceration in a concentration camp such as Dachau or Buchenwald. Herskovits was successful in arranging sufficient funding so Kirchhoff and his wife Joanna could find refuge in Mexico. In the years between his arrival in London in 1931 and his exile to Mexico Kirchhoff struggled to find political safety and academic security outside of Germany.

Apropos Opa by Julia Butschkow

Apropos Opa by Julia Butschkow

Individuation during adolescence and emerging adulthood – five German studies

Among theories describing human relationships and interactions, individuation theory has increasingly gained attention over the last three decades. After ideas of individuation were introduced to the USA by German emigrants, such as Erik Erikson and Peter Blos, a second generation of American researchers brought the issue to the fore during the 1980s. Since then, German research has taken up the topic. Current lines of German research resonate with contemporary American research (e.g., Allen, Smetana), but also explore possible extensions of the theory. Here we introduce five German studies that explore relations between individuation and attachment, interactions between transmissions and relationships, or try to extend individuation theory beyond adolescence and the family system.

Welfare State and Labor Mobility: The Impact of Bismarck's Social Legislation on German Emigration before World War I

The rapid decline of German emigration before World War I constitutes a puzzle that traditional explanations have difficulty in solving. The article shows that the social legislation implemented by Bismarck during the 1880s—the most developed at the time—played a key role in this process. Indeed, candidates for migration considered not only the gap between “direct wages” (labor earnings) in the United States and Germany, but also the differential in “indirect wages,” that is, social benefits. In that way, Bismarck's insurance system partly offset low wage rates in Germany and furthered the fall of the emigration rate.O sprecht! warum zogt ihr von dannen?Das Neckartal hat Wein und Korn;Der Schwarzwald steht voll finstrer Tannen,Im Spessart klingt des Ålplers Horn.Wie wird es in den fremden WäldernEuch nach der Heimatberge Grün,Nach Deutschlands gelben Weizenfeldern,Nach seinen Rebenhügeln ziehn!Ferdinand Freiligrath1

Alabama in 1848: As Described by Traugott Bromme

DURING THE EARLY PART OF THE 1800S, economic problems and political turmoil brought many Europeans to the United States in large numbers. Many came from Germany, and a portion of those immigrants eventually settled in Alabama. One early German immigrant to the United States was Traugott Bromme, who saw in the European exodus a potential for profit and success. Between 1840 and 1866 he prepared and published eight editions, one posthumously, of a travel guide for German emigrants to North America. Bromme’s guide included information on all regions of the country, and the pages devoted to Alabama portrayed the state as a beneficial destination for prospective emigrants. Simon Traugott Bromme was born on December 3, 1802, in Anger, near Leipzig, in what would later become Germany.1 His father was apparently a well-to-do estate owner and Gerichtsschöffe, a legal assistant to the court. Traugott, who had at least four siblings, was orphaned at the age of five. He grew up witnessing, among other pivotal events of the era, Napoleon’s troops marching to Russia in 1812. Richard L. Bland is an archaeologist at the Oregon State Museum of Anthropology, a research division of the University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History in Eugene. His major interest is Old World–New World connections, as a result of which he translates Russian archaeological monographs on Northeast Asia, as well as some history dealing with Russian America (e.g., A. V. Grinev’s book The Tlingit Indians in Russian America 1741–1867, published by the University of Nebraska Press, 2005). He would like to thank his late uncle, H. D. McCutcheon, for giving him a volume of Traugott Bromme, the Staatsbibliotek in Berlin for helpfully providing materials related to Bromme, Nan Copprock-Bland for proofreading the final draft, and the editors of the Alabama Review. 1 The nation we know as Germany today was for most of its history a disjointed confederation of states—for example, Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg—governed by princes and other leaders and connected by a common culture and language. These lands were not unified as one nation until 1871. Mary Fulbrook, A Concise History of Germany (London, 1992), 122–25. For ease of reading, however, these states will be referred to as Germany throughout this essay. Notes and Documents R I C H A R D L . B L A N D ALABAMA IN 1848: AS DESCRIBED BY TRAUGOTT BROMME J A N U A R Y 2 0 0 8 49 In 1817, he attended a class at a Leipzig bookshop, an experience that would eventually launch him into the book business. He did not immediately become a writer or publisher; instead, he spent three years studying and traveling, even finding a measure of adventure. In April 1821 Bromme immigrated to the United States and studied medicine. After this he is supposed to have served as a doctor in the “Columbian” service and also spent some time in a Haitian jail.2 Bromme’s book career began in 1824. In June of that year he returned to Saxony and settled in Dresden, where he became a partner in Walther’schen Hoffbuchhandlung, which his brother-in-law, the book dealer Johann Gottlieb Wagner, had purchased in the same year. In 1833 Bromme traveled again to the United States, this time to Baltimore (where he possibly had relatives), and took up a partnership in the publishing house of Scheld and Company.3 While in Baltimore he published travel guides, producing eight titles between 1834 and 1837. He appears to have returned to Germany by about 1840, settling in Stuttgart. One lesson that Bromme may have learned in his travels between Germany and America was that many immigrants to America arrived with no prospect of a job and were unable to speak English, the dominant language. He also would have seen that many of the people who were looking for a new start in life were Germans. These émigrés needed information that would let them know what to expect; in response , Bromme wrote a travel guide for German emigrants, which became relatively popular, entitled: Traugott Bromme’s Hand- und...

Erich Auerbach and the Humanist Reform to the Turkish Education System

Erich Auerbach and the Humanist Reform to the Turkish Education System Kader Konuk (bio) With its predominantly Muslim citizenry and geographical location linking two continents, Turkey has become a battleground for the definition of "Europeanness." Parallel to the debate over whether Turkey can legitimately represent Europe and so join the European Union runs the debate over how to preserve "Turkishness" in a time of change. In fact, these debates are not new. The anxiety about losing a sense of national difference while conforming to European culture—however defined—is rooted in the early years of the Turkish Republic when European concepts of modernity were adopted to serve the country's domestic purposes and international aspirations. With the foundation of the Turkish Republic in 1923, President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk introduced a series of modernization reforms designed to break with the Ottoman past. This article focuses on a highly significant aspect of those Europeanization reforms, namely the restructuring of the humanities, something that was to play a central role in the dissemination of European ideas and the reconceptualization of Turkish citizens as Europeans. Modeling itself on the European system, Istanbul University was refounded as a modern institution of higher learning in 1933, an event coinciding with the dismissal of German academics on anti-Semitic and political grounds from German universities. Taking advantage of the flight from National Socialism, Turkish universities immediately hired more than forty German scholars to facilitate the westernization of tertiary institutions. These modernization measures, steered by both Turkish reformers and German émigrés, promoted identification with Europe while simultaneously emphasizing Turkishness as a common ground for the new nation. [End Page 74] This article investigates the role of German emigrants as ambivalent mediators within Turkey's modernization process. Because of his pivotal role in the humanities in Germany, Turkey, and the United States, this article focuses on the Romance scholar Erich Auerbach (1892–1957) and the eleven years he spent in Turkey. Investigating Auerbach's role in Turkey allows me to show how the national and the humanist movement were intertwined at this crucial juncture in Turkey's identification with the West. Erich Auerbach was hired to chair the Faculty for Western Languages and Literatures at Istanbul University and produced his most significant scholarship during his tenure in Turkey (1936–1947). As one of the greatest humanist critics of his time, Auerbach gained prominence with the publication of his seminal work, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature in 1946. This achievement paved the way for his career at Pennsylvania State University, then Princeton University, and finally Yale University. Included among his methodological contributions was a new approach for studying the representation of reality through narrative style, an approach that greatly influenced a range of fields, including literary theory, history, comparative literature, and cultural history. Edward Said suggested that for Auerbach the "Orient and Islam stood for the ultimate alienation from and opposition to Europe, the European tradition of Christian Latinity, as well as to the putative authority of ecclesia, humanistic learning, and cultural community."1Pace Said, I show that the concept of modernity in 1930s Turkey was based on European learning—specifically on the humanistic tradition. This is not, of course, to downplay the significance of the Orientalist stereotyping of Turkey in the Western European imagination. I want to emphasize, however, that Turkish experiences informed Auerbach's view of Istanbul in more complex and powerful ways than discourses that set up a dichotomy between the Orient and Occident. I suggest that Said's reading of Auerbach as an isolated, dislocated, and estranged European intellectual in an Oriental world serves Said's own rhetorical purposes as an intellectual in exile; what it overlooks is the fact that Istanbul University in the 1930s was, for good reason, dubbed "Berlin dis , inda en büyük Alman Üniversitesi" [the biggest German university besides Berlin].2 Istanbul was not only a city in which Auerbach met many other German scholars who fled National Socialism; it was also a place with a familiar history. For Auerbach personally, Istanbul was linked to the classical heritage of Western Europe, something that allowed him to identify with the city. This is clear from...

Ein deutsch–amerikanisches Netzwerk durch Briefe nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: Ein Versuch und sein Scheitern

This article discusses the attempt to establish an American–German network of educational scientists and philosophers, and its failure after the end of the Second World War. The German emigrant Walter Fales (alias Walter Feilchenfeld) tried to initiate a correspondence between leading German and American authors in the pedagogical field in 1946 and 1947. This communication was accompanied by an American journal project, which failed because of lack of money, and book sendings to Germany. The aim was a network of German and American figures in the field of educational research and theory to transfer American democratic ideas, e.g. Pragmatism, to Germany. Fales’s initiative involved such persons as John Dewey on one side, and Eduard Spranger and Herman Nohl on the other. After some letters the Germans showed little interest in such an exchange but the books were welcomed. Besides the complaints about the distressing everyday life in a destroyed Germany the Germans felt domineered by the Americans. With only one node (Fales) the initiated American–German network lacked the power to bind the two existing (German and American) networks together.

The Unbounded German Nation: Dr. Otto Hahn and German Emigration to Canada in the 1870s and 1880s

Otto Hahn, un avocat et un organisateur de l’émigration de l’État de Würtemberg en Allemagne, fit partie intégrante du débat allemand sur l’empire colonial, l’identité germanique et l’émigration. Dans cet article, nous suggérons que toute discussion portant sur cette dernière au niveau européen au dix-neuvième siècle doit prendre en considération là où elle a eu lieu dans le contexte de l’expansion coloniale. Hahn était, à bien des égards, un représentant typique du colonialisme émigrationiste. Pourtant, il avait des idées qui déviaient de ce qu’on comprend normalement sous ce terme. Sa fascination toujours plus grande pour le Canada jette une lumière sur la manière dont cette idéologie populaire pouvait s’altérer. Par ailleurs, tout débat sur une identité germanique conçue à un niveau transnational vers la fin du dix-neuvième siècle doit inclure des communautés intellectuelles et spirituelles en tant que sources d’une telle identité, et doit les placer dans le contexte général de la diffusion de la modernité. Enfin, la dernière partie de l’histoire d’Otto Hahn nous permet d’avoir un rare aperçu d’un colonialiste émigrationiste devenu lui-même un émigrant, ce qui nous permet ainsi de concevoir l’émigration comme un moyen de contester et de négocier le nationalisme plutôt que d’y voir une porte de sortie de la communauté nationale.