Germ Cell Nuclear Factor Expression Research Articles

Increase of germ cell nuclear factor expression in globozoospermic Gopc-/- knockout mice.

Golgi-associated PDZ and coiled-coil motif-containing protein (GOPC) is a Golgi protein that plays a role in vesicular transport and intracellular protein trafficking and degradation. Mice deficient in GOPC protein have globozoospermia and are infertile. The germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily which is expressed in male germ cells, from spermatocytes and spermatids, both in the nucleus and the acrosomal region. It is not known if its expression could be altered in Gopc-/- mice with defective acrosomes. The aim of the present work was to analyze the distribution of GCNF protein in spermatids of Gopc-/- knockout mice. We have analyzed the expression and distribution during spermatogenesis of GCNF and its deregulation in Gopc-/- mutant mice by RT-qPCR, Western blot, immunohistochemistry and immunogold. Germ cell nuclear factor was localized in the nucleus of all the cell types in the seminiferous tubules. Despite being a nuclear protein, it was also located in the acrosome and in the manchette of elongating spermatids. We have found that in the absence of GOPC, the expression of GCNF was increased in the nucleus of spermatocytes, mainly in leptotene, and in the nucleus and the manchette during the spermatid elongation. Gopc-/- mice have defective acrosome and manchette. The manchette is involved in the transport of proteins through the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Considering that the GCNF protein is normally transported to the acrosome and the nucleus, it can be thought that transport deficiencies in Gopc-/- mice are responsible for the increased expression of this protein.

GCNF regulates OCT4 expression through its interactions with nuclear receptor binding elements in NCCIT cells.

We demonstrate that OCT4 expression is regulated by germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) via its interactions with three nuclear receptor (NR) binding sites within OCT4 promoter conserved regions (CRs) in human embryonic carcinoma (EC) NCCIT cells. OCT4 expression is gradually reduced during the retinoic acid-induced differentiation, while GCNF temporarily increased after 2 days and then significantly decreased. In addition, OCT4 expression is significantly reduced by overexpression of exogenous GCNF, but increased by GCNF shRNA-mediated knockdown. The transcriptional activity of OCT4 is significantly inhibited by dose-dependent overexpression of GCNF. While mutants at each of the NR binding sites retain the repressive effects of GCNF on OCT4 promoter activity, the repressive effect was completely eliminated in the reporter construct with all binding sites mutated even in the presence of GCNF. Furthermore, the transcriptional activity of native minimal promoter (CR1-Luc) containing the first NR binding site was significantly reduced by GCNF overexpression, while the mutant retained basal activity to some extent. Next, an exogenous minimal ti promoter-inserted CR2 reporter construct containing the second and third NR binding sites (CR2-ti-Luc) was co-transfected with GCNF expression vector. The transcriptional activity of CR2-ti-Luc was significantly decreased by GCNF overexpression, while mutation of both binding sites retained the transcriptional activity of the reporter construct. Binding assays confirmed the direct interaction of GCNF with all three NR binding sites cooperatively. Taken together, GCNF acts as a transcriptional repressor in the regulation of OCT4 gene expression through cooperative interaction with three NR binding elements in pluripotent NCCIT cells.

Germ Cell Nuclear Factor (GCNF) Represses Oct4 Expression and Globally Modulates Gene Expression in Human Embryonic Stem (hES) Cells

Oct4 is considered a key transcription factor for pluripotent stem cell self-renewal. It binds to specific regions within target genes to regulate their expression and is downregulated upon induction of differentiation of pluripotent stem cells; however, the mechanisms that regulate the levels of human Oct4 expression remain poorly understood. Here we show that expression of human Oct4 is directly repressed by germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF), an orphan nuclear receptor, in hES cells. Knockdown of GCNF by siRNA resulted in maintenance of Oct4 expression during RA-induced hES cell differentiation. While overexpression of GCNF promoted repression of Oct4 expression in both undifferentiated and differentiated hES cells. The level of Oct4 repression was dependent on the level of GCNF expression in a dose-dependent manner. mRNA microarray analysis demonstrated that overexpression of GCNF globally regulates gene expression in undifferentiated and differentiated hES cells. Within the group of altered genes, GCNF down-regulated 36% of the genes, and up-regulated 64% in undifferentiated hES cells. In addition, GCNF also showed a regulatory gene pattern that is different from RA treatment during hES cell differentiation. These findings increase our understanding of the mechanisms that maintain hES cell pluripotency and regulate gene expression during the differentiation process.

GERM CELL NUCLEAR FACTOR (GCNF) REPRESSES THE OCT4 GENE DURING RETINOIC ACID-INDUCED HUMAN EMBRYONIC STEM CELL DIFFERENTIATION

Embryonic stem (ES) cells require a network of transcription factors and signaling molecules to maintain their pluripotency. The transcription factor Oct4, one of pluripotency genes, is required for self-renewal and maintains the undifferentiated state of ES cells. Loss of expression of Oct4 initiates ES cell differentiation. Germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF), an orphan nuclear receptor, binds to a DR0 site within Oct4 gene promoter in human ES cells. Retinoic acid induces expression of GCNF, which binds the promoter of Oct4 gene, and accelerates the decrease of Oct4 gene expression and human ES cells differentiation. Expression of other pluripotency genes, such as Sox2, also decrease during human ES cell differentiation induced with retinoic acid. These findings increase our understanding of the mechanism of regulation of gene expression and in maintaining human ES cell pluripotence and during the differentiation process. Results 1: Tera-2 cells and human ES (H9) cells were induced to differentiate by Retinoic Acid (1μM). Expression of GCNF, Oct4, Sox2, Dax1, LRH1, SF1, Actin was determined by RT-PCR (A), and by western blot (B) in Tera-2 cells and human ES cells. GCNF expression increased by day 2 of differentiation in Tera-2 cells and human ES cells when treated with Retinoic Acid (1μM). GCNF expression is transient and decreased earlier in Tera-2 cells than in human ES cells. Expression of Oct4, Sox2 and SF-1 was gradually repressed during differentiation. Expression of the orphan receptor LRH1 increased when Tera-2 and human ES cells differentiated, and subsequently decreased. DAX1 expression was up-regulated when Tera-2 cells and human ES cells differentiate, and maintained the same level until day 6 in Tera-2 cells but gradually increased in human ES cells. Result 2: GCNF binding the DR0 site within the Oct4 promoter in Tera-2 cells and human ES cells is induced upon differentiation and is transient in nature. Detection of GCNF binding to the Oct4 promoter in vivo using Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays: Tera-2 cells and human ES cells were treated with Retinoic Acid (1 μM) and induced to differentiate. GCNF binding to the DR0 site of Oct4 promoter can be detected in vivo when Tera-2 cell and human ES cells differentiate, and then decreases at later stages of differentiation. Result 3: Analysis of GCNF binding to the DR0 element in the Oct4 promoter by electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs). No GCNF binding to the DR0 element was detected at day 0 in the Tera-2 cells and human ES cells. GCNF has been at the highest level of binding to the DR0 site at day 3 of RA-induced differentiation (arrow) and is shifted (arrow head) when GCNF-specific antibody is added to the EMSAs. GCNF DNA binding activity disappeared by day 5 of differentiation in Tera-2 cells. In human ES cells, GCNF displayed a higher level of binding to the DR0 site at day 3 of differentiation and decreased at day 5 of RA treatment. This result shows that GCNF directly binds to the conserved DR0 element in the Oct4 promoter in Tera-2 cells and human ES cell. (platform)

Expression of germ cell nuclear factor in rat epididymis during postnatal development

To explore the expression and distribution of germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF), an orphan receptor of the nuclear receptor superfamily which is supposed to have multifunction including spermatogenesis, neurogenesis and embryo development, in adult rat epididymis and young rats during postnatal development. Whole epididymis was collected from SD rats' aged 7, 14, 28, 45, 60 and 90 days, and 18 months. The protein expression of GCNF during rat epididymal development and its cellular localizations were examined by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry respectively. GCNF was immunolocalized in the nuclei of epididymal epithelial cells with negatively stained cytoplasm in rats during postnatal development. Study of postnatal development revealed that the density of GCNF protein (about 55000) was age-dependent. GCNF protein was first detected in the rats aged day 14. The number and intensity of positive cells increased along with differentiation and proliferation of the epithelium, and peaked when the rats were aged 45 days and then decreased gradually. The results of Western-blotting confirmed those of immunohistochemistry. In adult rats, basal cell, apical cell, narrow cell, and clear cell and halo cell. GCNF in the principal cells exhibited a region-specific and cell-specific expression pattern that was observed from the age of 14 days. The GCNF expression was gradually decreased from the initial segment to proximal cauda epididymis. There was a predominant expression in the proximal caput region. The principal cells in the same segment also displayed a variable staining pattern, with the nucleus being intensely, moderately, or weekly reactive. In the distal cauda epididymis, only the nuclei of clear cells displayed an intensive staining, as compared with very weak staining in the principal cells. The expression of GCNF may be concerned with the differentiation and development of epididymal epithelium, and its expression pattern is epididymal segment-specific and cell-specific.

Generation of a germ cell nuclear factor conditional allele in mice.

Two recombination steps in embryonic stem (ES) cells were adopted to generate a floxed Germ Cell Nuclear Factor (GCNF) allele. First, a targeting vector containing a loxP site upstream of exon 4, encoding the DNA binding domain (DBD), and a floxed NeoTK double selection cassette downstream of exon 4 was integrated into the GCNF locus by homologous recombination. Second, a Cre-expressing vector was transiently introduced to remove the floxed NeoTK cassette via site-specific recombination. Heterogeneous ES cell populations were found in a single colony after Cre transfection and were separated using an ES cell re-pick step. Floxed GCNF mice were generated and had normal GCNF expression in the adult gonads. Using the Msx2Cre transgenic mice, the floxed GCNF can be completely deleted in the female germline. Taken together, the floxed GCNF mice were successfully generated and female germline deletion of the floxed GCNF allele was achieved using Msx2Cre mice.

GCNF-dependent repression of BMP-15 and GDF-9 mediates gamete regulation of female fertility.

To determine the function of germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) in female reproduction, we generated an oocyte-specific GCNF knockout mouse model (GCNF(fl/fl)Zp3Cre(+)). These mice displayed hypofertility due to prolonged diestrus phase of the estrous cycle and aberrant steroidogenesis. These reproductive defects were secondary to a primary defect in the oocytes, in which expression of the paracrine transforming growth factor-beta signaling molecules, bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP-15) and growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF-9), were up-regulated in GCNF(fl/fl)Zp3Cre(+) females at diestrus. This was a direct effect of GCNF, as molecular studies showed that GCNF bound to DR0 elements within the BMP-15 and GDF-9 gene promoters and repressed their reporter activities. Consistent with these findings, abnormal double-oocyte follicles, indicative of aberrant BMP-15/GDF-9 expression, were observed in GCNF(fl/fl)Zp3Cre(+) females. The Cre/loxP knockout of GCNF in the oocyte has uncovered a new regulatory pathway in ovarian function. Our results show that GCNF directly regulates paracrine communication between the oocyte and somatic cells by regulating the expression of BMP-15 and GDF-9, to affect female fertility.

Germ cell nuclear factor

Germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) is an orphan nuclear receptor for which a ligand has yet to be identified. However, we do know that GCNF binds to a novel response element as a homodimer and regulates expression of genes, such as the protamines, through this element. In the absence of a ligand, GCNF is a transcriptional repressor that interacts with co-repressors. During embryonic development, GCNF is expressed between the gastrula and neurula stages. Loss of GCNF causes embryonic lethality, disrupts normal somitogenesis, as well as neural tube and axis formation, suggesting that GCNF is a critical factor for normal embryonic development. In adult vertebrates, GCNF expression is predominantly found in the germ cells of gonads. GCNF expression in germ cells suggests that understanding its function in adults will yield greater insight into the regulation of gametogenesis, leading to new contraceptive targets.

Mouse Germline Restriction of Oct4 Expression by Germ Cell Nuclear Factor

The POU-domain transcription factor Oct4 is essential for the maintenance of the mammalian germline. In this study, we show that the germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF), an orphan nuclear receptor, represses Oct4 gene activity by specifically binding within the proximal promoter. GCNF expression inversely correlates with Oct4 expression in differentiating embryonal cells. GCNF overexpression in embryonal cells represses Oct4 gene and transgene activities, and we establish a link to transcriptional corepressors mediating repression by GCNF. In GCNF-deficient mouse embryos, Oct4 expression is no longer restricted to the germ cell lineage after gastrulation. Our studies suggest that GCNF is critical in repressing Oct4 gene activity as pluripotent stem cells differentiate and in confining Oct4 expression to the germline.

Germ cell nuclear factor is a transcriptional repressor essential for embryonic development.

GCNF is an orphan member of the nuclear receptor superfamily. The nuclear receptor superfamily is a large superfamily of transcription factors, the majority of which are designated as orphan receptors because their ligands and functions are currently unknown. GCNF (Germ Cell Nuclear Factor) is so named because of its restricted expression pattern in the adult. In the testis, GCNF is expressed only in the post meiotic round spermatids. Likewise in the ovary, GCNF's expression is restricted to the growing oocyte. To date nothing is known of GCNF's putative ligand; however, much is known about its physiological function through the use of gene targeting. Inactivation of the GCNF gene showed that it was essential for normal embryonic development. In addition to being expressed in the germ cells of the adult, it is expressed widely throughout the embryo after gastrulation. Significant strides have also been made in understanding GCNF's mechanism of action using molecular biology. The DNA binding properties of GCNF have been investigated and its response element identified. GCNF binds as a homodimer to a direct repeat element with zero nucleotides between the reiterated sequence AGGTCA. GCNF target genes have been identified that contain this DR0 element in their promoters. Such genes as Protamines 1 and 2 and Oct4 are regulated by GCNF through this element. GCNF has been shown to be a repressor of the protamine and Oct4 genes. GCNF's repression function has been shown to be mediated by interaction with the co-repressors N-CoR and SMRT in the absence of ligand. Our current efforts are to explore GCNF function in the adult germ cells using tissue specific gene targeting to specifically knock out the GCNF gene in oocytes and spermatogenic cells. In addition, efforts are being made to identify the endogenous ligand that regulates GCNF's transcriptional properties.

Germ Cell Nuclear Factor: An Orphan Receptor in Search of a Function

Germ Cell Nuclear Factor (GCNF) is an orphan member of the nuclear receptor gene superfamily. Much has been understood about the functioning of GCNF which represents a candidate receptor for a novel hormonal signalling pathway. GCNF is not closely related to other members of the nuclear receptor superfamily and forms its own branch within the superfamily tree. It has a unique expression pattern that spans both embryonic and adult stages of development. In the adult, it is expressed in the germ cells: oocytes and spermatogenic cells as well as specific neuronal cells within the brain. In the embryo, GCNF expression is turned on after gastrulation in all germ layers the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. An antero-posterior gradient of GCNF is established in the neuroectoderm of the embryo, suggesting a role in regulation of neuronal and germ cell development. Regulation of physiological processes by a nuclear receptor is achieved through regulation of gene expression. GCNF is the only nuclear receptor to specifcally bind to DR0 hormone response elements to regulate gene expression. In the absense of a ligand, GCNF represses gene expression. GCNF is capable of regulating the expression of the protamine genes in a response element-dependent manner. At present the ligand for GCNF is unknown, but it is hypothesized that GCNF is a receptor for a novel hormonal signalling pathway that effects its biological response by regulating the expression of a subset of genes containing DR0 response elements.

Characterization of the DNA-binding and dimerization properties of the nuclear orphan receptor germ cell nuclear factor.

The orphan receptor germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) is a member of the superfamily of nuclear receptors. During development, GCNF exhibits a restricted brain-specific expression pattern, whereas GCNF expression in the adult is germ cell specific. Therefore, the receptor may participate in the regulation of neurogenesis and reproductive functions. No natural GCNF target gene has yet been identified, but recent data demonstrate specific and high-affinity binding of GCNF either to the direct repeat DNA element AGGTCAAGGTCA (DR0) or to extended half-sites, such as TCAAGGTCA. In this study, we show that murine GCNF (mGCNF) can bind as a homodimer to extended half-sites, thus describing a novel property within the nuclear receptor superfamily. Homodimeric binding to extended half-sites requires the presence of a dimerization function within the mGCNF DNA-binding domain (DBD) and a novel dimerization surface encompassing the putative helix 3 and the helix 12 region of the mGCNF ligand-binding domain (LBD). In addition, the mGCNF LBD has the potential to adopt different conformations with distinct dimerization properties. The helix 12 region of the mGCNF LBD not only regulates the switch between these dimerization conformations but also dictates the DNA-binding behavior and transcriptional properties of the different dimerization conformations. In summary, our findings describe unique DNA-binding and dimerization properties of a nuclear receptor and suggest a novel mechanism that allows mGCNF to modulate target gene activity.

Germ cell nuclear factor: an orphan receptor with unexpected properties.

The orphan receptor germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) is a member of the superfamily of nuclear receptors. During embryogenesis GCNF expression is restricted to the developing nervous system, whereas in the adult the receptor is also expressed during specific stages in maturing germ cells of the ovary and testis. Therefore GCNF may participate in the regulation of neurogenesis and reproductive functions. Binding of GCNF to the consensus element TCA[AG(G/T)TCA]2 (conRE), to the direct repeat DNA element AGGTCAAGGTCA (DR0), and to extended half-sites such as TCAAGGTCA (XRE) has been demonstrated, but no natural GCNF target gene has been identified. However, due to an overlapping temporal expression pattern and the presence of DR0-type elements in their promoter regions, the protamine 1 and 2 genes have been proposed as potential candidates for a regulation by GCNF. Since GCNF binds as a homodimer to all three elements (conRE, DR0, and XRE) the receptor exhibits an exceptional property within the nuclear receptor superfamily. Homodimeric binding of GCNF to extended half-sites requires the presence of a novel dimerization motif located in the putative helix 3 of the GCNF ligand-binding domain (LBD). Since neither potential ligands nor heterodimerization partners or cofactors for GCNF have been identified, little is known about the mechanisms by which the receptor controls transcriptional processes. Due to the lack of a conserved transcriptional activation function 2 core motif (AF-2 AD core) in the helix 12 region of the GCNF LBD, it has been suggested that GCNF functions as a repressor of transcription. In addition, recent data suggest that the helix 12 region displays functions distinct from those in other nuclear receptors and is involved in the control of DNA binding. Together, these reports indicate that GCNF exhibits novel properties distinct from other members of the nuclear receptor superfamily.

Cloning, expression analysis and chromosomal localization of the human nuclear receptor gene GCNF

Germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) is an orphan member of the nuclear receptor gene superfamily. We report the cloning of a cDNA encoding a new variant of human GCNF from human testis and its expression analysis. Southern blot analysis of the human genomic DNA indicates that the GCNF gene is not closely related to other members within the nuclear receptor superfamily. Chromosomal localization of the GCNF gene shows that the gene is located on chromosome 9 at the locus q33–34.1. In situ hybridization analysis of GCNF expression in the testis shows that human GCNF is expressed exclusively in germ cells.

Characterization of germ cell-specific expression of the orphan nuclear receptor, germ cell nuclear factor.

Nuclear receptors, such as those for androgens, estrogens, and progesterones, control many reproductive processes. Proteins with structures similar to these receptors, but for which ligands have not yet been identified, have been termed orphan nuclear receptors. One of these orphans, germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF), has been shown to be germ cell specific in the adult and, therefore, may also participate in the regulation of reproductive functions. In this paper, we examine more closely the expression patterns of GCNF in germ cells to begin to define spatio-temporal domains of its activity. In situ hybridization showed that GCNF messenger RNA (mRNA) is lacking in the testis of hypogonadal mutant mice, which lack developed spermatids, but is present in the wild-type testis. Thus, GCNF is, indeed, germ cell specific in the adult male. Quantitation of the specific in situ hybridization signal in wild-type testis reveals that GCNF mRNA is most abundant in stage VII round spermatids. Similarly, Northern analysis and specific in situ hybridization show that GCNF expression first occurs in testis of 20-day-old mice, when round spermatids first emerge. Therefore, in the male, GCNF expression occurs postmeiotically and may participate in the morphological changes of the maturing spermatids. In contrast, female expression of GCNF is shown in growing oocytes that have not completed the first meiotic division. Thus, GCNF in the female is expressed before the completion of meiosis. Finally, the nature of the two different mRNAs that hybridize to the GCNF complementary DNA was studied. Although both messages contain the DNA binding domain, only the larger message is recognized by a probe from the extreme 3' untranslated region. In situ hybridization with these differential probes demonstrates that both messages are present in growing oocytes. In addition, the coding region and portions of the 3' untranslated region of the GCNF complementary DNA are conserved in the rat.