Geopolitical Views Research Articles

No Longer Neutral: The ECB’s Geopoliticization of the International Role of the Euro

While the euro has, since its creation, been the world’s second most important currency, the ECB has long depoliticized the international role of the euro by proclaiming a neutral stance. However, as this article explains, since 2019, the ECB has embraced currency internationalization and framed the issue in geopolitical terms. This policy change reflects a response to a changed international political environment after 2018 and it has led the ECB to seek closer political coordination regarding external economic policy. As the international role of the euro has become a concern for the EU’s broader geoeconomic turn, it may, however, become difficult for the ECB to reconcile its political independence with its more geopolitical view of currency internationalization.

Trends in the development of EU energy policy at the present stage

The issue of energy security and energy independence of the EU is one of the key factors in ensuring the stable development of the association. The subject of the study is the energy concepts of the European Union. The object of the study is the modern energy policy of the EU countries. The countries of the European Union are among the world's largest importers and exporters of energy resources, and therefore one of the criteria for EU energy security is the creation of secure logistics chains for uninterrupted energy supplies, since this factor has always been one of the most important problems in energy security. However, despite all the data that the European Union has, this area is a source of numerous problems for ensuring energy security that the EU faces at the current stage of its development. The methodological basis of the study is a systematic analysis and a geo-economic approach. The systematic approach was used in the work to identify the reasons for the transformation of EU energy concepts in the context of the energy crisis. The geo-economic approach allows us to qualitatively consider this issue from the point of view of economics and geopolitics of the countries of Eastern and Western Europe in the context of energy transition. The novelty of the research lies in the comprehensive analysis of the concept of energy security in the complex in the context of energy transfer. The authors pay special attention to the analysis of the energy policy of the European Union, numerous new initiatives and documents related to this area, as well as the development of the concept of green energy. The authors highlight the challenges that the EU will face on the way to building a stable and safe energy sector. The paper also examines the impact of the EU's energy policy on the concept of European unity. Attention is being paid to the EU's attempts to diversify energy supplies, which plays an important role in the context of the Ukrainian crisis and complications from the loss of Russian supplies. The authors conclude that the lack of internal unity within the EU does not allow for an effective and sustainable energy policy, since the European Union does not have a common energy legislation, and infrastructure development between the countries of Western and Eastern Europe is overly diversified, which does not allow us to talk about the transformation of energy policy in the EU countries at the present stage.

Kitas Jurgis Baltrušaitis

The article examines and discusses the diplomatic activities and accomplishments of Jurgis Baltrušaitis, the long-standing envoy of Lithuania to the Soviet Union. The study is focused on several problematic moments of the envoy’s work in Moscow, especially the unique environment in which Baltrušaitis’s geopolitical views took shape and which later seemed to have influenced his diplomatic activities. The archival materials used in the article (they include Baltrušaitis’s political reports and his diplomatic correspondence) reveal the Lithuanian envoy’s controversial position regarding relations with the USSR. The study also discusses Baltrušaitis’s tense relations with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the reasons for the constant conflicts with the leadership of Lithuania, analyses the algorithms of the envoy’s communications with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and provides an assessment of the results of the ‘geopolitical mission’ that Jurgis Baltrušaitis aspired to achieve.

“Invited by the Mighty Powers to Watch the Spectacle in Awe”: a Political Portrait of Valery Bryusov

The article gives a detailed outline of the evolution of political and geopolitical views of Valery Bryusov (1873–1924), one of the greatest fi gures of Russian Silver Age. An innovator and rebel in literature, Bryusov, despite his rejection of many political and social realities of Russian life, invariably remained a patriot having a clear understanding of Russia's national interests. Having received a professional education in history and keeping up with world politics from his very youth, Bryusov became one of the most “political” poets of his era infl uenced by his favorite poet Fyodor Tyutchev. The article examines Bryusov's activity as a political analyst and publicist, his attitude to the Russian-Japanese war of 1904–1905, the revolutionary turmoil of 1905–1907, the confl ict of European civilization with the non-European world, the First World War and the February Revolution in Russia. The author analyzes Bryusov's attitude to the Bolshevik coup and his relations with the new government. The author assumes that Bryusov's political works should be republished.

Critical perspectives on internationalization in higher education: commercialization, global citizenship, or postcolonial imperialism?

ABSTRACT We explore the literature on internationalization in higher education and distinguish between the mainstream and radical approaches to critical scholarship. We argue that the mainstream approach continues to steer internationalization towards socially progressive and equitable aims, while growing concerns have surfaced especially with regard to its commercialization. We focus on the postcolonial approach and suggest that it has inherent limitations stemming from its roots in a ‘modern global/colonial imaginary’ based on an outdated bipolar or unipolar, rather than multipolar, view of geopolitics. In the analysis of higher education, this perspective fails to recognize contemporary forms of colonialism and, in contrast to other strands of critical scholarship, neglects the shifting nature of geopolitics and the various forms and locations of colonialism. Consequently, we argue that the postcolonial approach becomes myopic, as it tends to be West-centric, selectively critical and denies local agency. Moreover, it falls short in explaining the motives behind internationalization in diverse contexts. Therefore, we argue for a plurality of critical approaches, widely applied, to gain a comprehensive understanding of internationalization on a global scale.

Travelling abroad and geopolitical preferences – case of Kharkiv, Dnipro and Mariupol, Ukraine

The paper investigates the relationship between travel abroad experience and individual geopolitical preferences in three geopolitical fault-line cities in the eastern part of Ukraine. Employing binary logistic regression as a principal research method, we show that travel experience to European countries positively correlates with pro-European attitudes and corresponds to weaker pro-Soviet sentiments. On the contrary, travel experience to Russia is associated with somewhat weaker support for European geopolitical and cultural integration but stronger pro-Soviet sentiments. Travel experience to Russia is less important predictor of geopolitical preferences than visiting European countries. Pro-European attitudes, compared with pro-Soviet sentiments, are much more interlinked with international travel experience. The data on bilateral travellers evidences that possible effect of visiting European countries basically neutralises the effect of visiting Russia in terms of impact on geopolitical preferences. Although the relationship between travel abroad experience and geopolitical preferences is similar in all three cities under investigation, certain variations between them may be explained by different economic, socio-cultural and institutional background. The revealed correlations seem to cover both direct causal effect of travel abroad on geopolitical preferences and a reverse causality, namely self-selection of destination country according to personal pre-existing geopolitical views. The importance of discovered relationships for the integration of Ukrainian society into European civilization project is apparent not only considering visa-free regime between Ukraine and the European Union (EU), but also in view of the Russian military invasion in 2022 as a cause of flows of refugees from Ukraine to Europe.

Dates, Carpets, and Pearl Necklaces: The Case of Anno 1404s Exotic Orientalism

Since a few decades, digital games have become an area deemed worthy of studying for academics of multifarious fields. Numerous articles and books are being written on the topic of games and culture. Anno 1404 is an economic simulation with a medieval setting that deploys various Orientalist stereotypes. Some scholars, leaning on Said's seminal work Orientalism, have analyzed Orientalist aspects in various digital games. The scope of this article consists of such an analysis of Anno 1404. The game's setting, religious context, view of Muslims, mechanism, narrative, characters, representations, gamescape, geopolitics, and stereotypes are pertinent to this analysis. Anno 1404 proves to carry the characteristics of colonialism, imperialism, and exotic Orientalism.

Studia diplomatica. The Diplomacy of Apocalypsis

Crisis status of the contemporary Western civilisation and the processes of its secular spiritual decay as the main reason for conflict state with the Russian world with its Christian Orthodox tradition. Inability for Russia to acknowledge the modern neoliberal order, enforced in Europe and initiated by an Anglo-Saxon non-Christian ideology. Its impact and of its secular values on general situation around European and global diplomacy, international law marginalisation as a legal nihilism as a result of it. Attempt to substitute traditional diplomatic notions and values in favour of liberal supremacy as the main reason for weakness and ineffectiveness of today’s diplomacy and nullity of international law. Given the historical part of Russian Europe in forming European and Europe-Asian identity, an obvious task is to save the historical Europe, to protect its Christian identity from Anglo-Saxon antihumane ideas and from cancel-culture policy in Europe. In this regard historical school of European diplomacy preserves its major role, which had been formed with the Russian foreign policy involvement during the last centuries. The very diplomatic factors must ensure the European cultural identity, the century traditions of unity and alliance between Russia and European countries. With Anglo-Saxon protectorate in Europe, US interests dominance, preserving Russian role in European expanse is crucial in Western European conscious, as well as impeding the decline of Russia’s activities in relations with European states and prevention of vacuum in such cooperation, despite the rise of interest towards East and Asia. It’s important not to allow a revision of geopolitical role of Russia on the Western direction due to costs of the turn to the East. Both in cultural and civilisational aspects Russia remains to be a European state, and a geopolitical view on cooperation with Asia must not lead to the destruction of Russian positions and infl uence in Europe. With the de-facto transformation of the EU into a military-political power, a NATO affix, it’s important to put eff orts into the rise of the level of bilateral relations and a partnership with the European countries, securing a reduction of the EU negative role, which doesn’t represent the whole Europe, with Russia being part of it.

Uticaj ekonomskih migracija na savremenu geopolitiku - demografska perspektiva

In the modern world, migration is an extremely complex and dynamic process that has a great impact on the demographic, economic and political development of a country. Monitoring migration trends and phenomena is crucial for their understanding, especially when it is taken into account that the number of economic migrants in developed countries has increased significantly in the last few years. Migrants today shape the political and economic system of many countries and thus change the structure of the world geopolitical order. Contemporary authors speak of geopolitics as the geography of politics, the spatial dimension of politics that is motivated by the concrete interests of various state and non-state actors. One of the key factors of geopolitics is the population, since it is used to achieve the most effective and firmest possession of the territory. Through this paper, an approach based on economic migrants and how they shape contemporary geopolitics will be addressed. The initial idea will be discussed from the theoretical point of view of economic migration, and further elaborated through the point of view of contemporary geopolitics and economic migration. Also, the idea about the relationship between demographic transition and geopolitics will be discussed. Finally, through the analysis of demopolitics, an insight into how contemporary geopolitics is developing and in which direction it could develop in the future will be given. The aim of this paper is to present as best as possible the interdependence of geopolitical decisions and economic migration trends.

ВНЕШНЕПОЛИТИЧЕСКАЯ ЭКСПЕРТИЗА: ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ ПОТЕНЦИАЛ ТЕОРИИ СЕКЬЮРИТИЗАЦИИ

The article is a scientific review of the studies of securitization theory, aimed at identifying its possible application to the study of foreign policy expertise. The study characterizes the main actors of securitization of international political issues; highlights the key provisions of securitization theory, which can be used to study foreign policy expertise; offers the author's interpretation of O. Khvostunova's typology of political experts regarding securitization in the framework of expert geopolitical discourse. The findings show that the application of securitization theory can contribute to the development of the scientific notion of foreign policy expertise as a specific network of experts engaged in the geopolitical discourse of the state and influencing foreign policy through it. It happens by having an effect on the geopolitical view of the world of both the political elite and the masses. In the future, the study of securitization steps and securitizing speeches in general can contribute to a deeper understanding of how and on what basis perceptions of foreign policy of decision makers in the security field are formed, what channels are used for this purpose, what role foreign policy expertise and pseudo-expertise play in this process.

State Capitalism in Russia: A Review Article (Part 1)

The article reviews current scholarship and debates on state capitalism as well as studies of this phenomenon in Russia.Aim. This article aims to review current scholarly debates on state intervention in the Russian economy and identify key positions in this field.Tasks. In the first part of the article, we reveal the history of the concept of ‘state capitalism’ and review debates on the ‘new state capitalism’, its developmentalist, political, social and other interpretations.Methods. This article compares scholars’ positions and identifies divisions in the field.Results. In the first part of the article, we demonstrate that the concept of ‘state capitalism’ has been discussed in the Marxist tradition since the late 19th century. However, the crisis of 2008-2009 marked the renewal of mainstream interest in this phenomenon. There are several interpretations of state capitalism. Industrial policy view treats state capitalism as a way of stimulating economic growth and technological development. Social policy view considers it to be an instrument of solving social problems, such as unemployment and high prices on certain goods and services. Political view envisions state capitalism as a vehicle for rent-seeking and patronage. Geopolitical view treats it as an instrument of foreign policy and the defense of national sovereignty. State capitalism is also seen as a vehicle for financialization and globalization. State capitalism is studied both on the microlevel of specific industries, regions and projects, and on the macrolevel of the national economies.Conclusion. Current debates on state capitalism comprise a dynamic, multidisciplinary research field. Within this field, the Russian case should be investigated in the comparative perspective.

Nomocracy versus teleocracy: Comparing participatory urban redevelopment in Shenzhen and Kashgar

ABSTRACT The Chinese regime in urban redevelopment has evolved from a command type to one that seems committed to adopting the successful elements of participatory institutions. Recent studies mostly focus on the analysis of cities populated by the Han ethnic group and, as such, are susceptible to ethnographical and cultural bias. Building upon the concepts of habitus and nomocratic-teleocratic imbrication, this article investigates the variegated forms of Chinese urban governance in redevelopment projects through a comparative view of critical geopolitics in cities with stark ethnographical differences—a Uyghur community in Kashgar’s Old Town, and a Han community in Shenzhen. Our findings reveal that, when faced with a teleocratic order imposed on their nomocratically formed space, Uyghur residents with a community-based habitus preferred non-confrontational practices for self-protection, rather than direct engagement in open conflict; conversely, Shenzhen residents with state-preference habitus chose public mobilization as a means to seek state attention, largely because their teleocratic community was allowed certain room for negotiations and contestation in the planning process. Two hybrid planning orders are identified: teleocratized nomocracy and nomocratized teleocracy, manifesting the divergent ways in which collaborative strategies have been incorporated by China’s governing authorities in order to increase policy adaptability. These findings contribute to understanding the complexity and flexibility of urban governance in the participatory transformation of the urban policy framework in China.

Analysis of the Cartoons Used by Greece in the Eastern Mediterranean Problem from the Point of View of Popular Geopolitics

Günümüzde yaygınlaşan medya, TV ve interneti kullanan iktidarlar yeni söylem biçimleri geliştirmişlerdir. Bu araştırmada kullanılan karikatür çalışmaları da popüler jeopolitik çalışmalar içinde bu yönü ile öne çıkan ve ele aldığı konuları topluma aktarma sürecinde yardımcı olan kaynaklardandır. Karikatürler, popüler jeopolitik içerisinde yer alan önemli söylem çeşitleri içerisindedir ve kamuoyunu yönlendirmek adına önemli bir vasıta olarak görülmektedir. Araştırma konusu olarak seçilen Doğu Akdeniz’deki hidrokarbon kaynaklarının paylaşımı konusunda Yunanistan ve Türkiye farklı kutuplarda yer almaktadır. Çalışmada kullanılan karikatürler Yunanistan’ın Türkiye’ye karşı yürüttüğü politikaları desteklemektedir. Bu konu ile ilgili Yunanistan kendi medya kuruluşlarında yer alan karikatürlerle haklılığını savunarak Türkiye karşıtı bir algı oluşturma çabası içindedir. Bu araştırmada Yunanistan medyasındaki Hellas Journal isimli haber ajansının karikatürleri popüler jeopolitik bağlamında değerlendirilmiştir. Yapılan incelemeler sonucu Hellas Journal dergisi Doğu Akdeniz sorunu bağlamında Türkiye’yi bölgede yasa dışı yollarla hareket eden ve hâlâ Osmanlıdan kalma özellikler taşıyan (Neo-Osmanlı) bir ülke tasavvuru içerisine sokmaktadır. Böylelikle kendi halkını Doğu Akdeniz hidrokarbon kaynaklarının paylaşım sürecinde Türkiye karşıtlığı konusunda domine etmektedir.

CHINA'S COMPETITIVENESS AS AN INVESTOR FOR RUSSIA IN GENERAL AND FOR THE ENERGY SECTOR IN PARTICULAR

The article the assessment of the China competitiveness is carried out taking into account geopolitical and economic factors. In terms of geopolitics, attention is paid to such initiatives as “Pivot to the East”, “One Belt One Road” and the initiative of countering the spread of COVID-19. In the context of economic indicators, an integral assessment of China's competitiveness as an investor is conducted on the basis of such indicators as the level of GDP, the global competitiveness index, the indicator of investment activity of China in the world and in Russia, as well as the indicator of investment activity in the energy sector of Russia, the number of Chinese investment energy projects and their current number. Based on the results of the analysis, it is concluded that, China has an exceptional competitive advantage from the point of view of geopolitics and macroeconomics. However, within the energy sector, China has been losing ground due to a decrease in investment activity.

“DIME” Analysis of the Conflict in Eastern Ukraine

Following the Maidan Revolution in 2014, the competing interests of the main actors in Ukraine and globally stalled the process of conflict resolution. The geopolitical view of the situation prevented focusing on the regional challenges such as the humanitarian situation and were unlikely to facilitate positive developments in the peaceful settlement of the conflict. The Minsk Agreements were questioned by both sides, although they were the only existing framework for the settlement of the conflict. The United Nations efforts in conflict management were limited due to controversial views between the West and Russia. This paper uses DIME conflict analysis to examine the various actors involved in the conflict between Ukraine and the separatist movements in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine from 2014 to the invasion of Ukraine in 2022. DIME is an acronym for Diplomacy, Information, Military, and Economic. The various parties and stakeholders involved in the conflict in eastern Ukraine are listed and characterized under these four descriptors.

Practical Applications of Geopolitical Risk in Investment Research: Allies, Adversaries, and Algorithms

In <b><i>Geopolitical Risk in Investment Research: Allies, Adversaries, and Algorithms</i></b>, from the 2021 Novel Risk Special Issue of <b><i>The Journal of Portfolio Management</i></b>, <b>Joseph Simonian</b>, founder and CIO of <b>Autonomous Investment Technologies</b>, reassesses the methods of geopolitical risk analysis employed in portfolio management. First, he proposes reframing geopolitical risk through the lens of international relations theory, thereby lending a more credentialed, conceptionally grounded perspective to the qualitative data available. In addition, Simonian promotes the use of various statistical theorems and algorithms to produce quantitative data that can assist investors in identifying and responding to geopolitical risk. The article discusses game theory as another potential tool to improve investor comprehension of geopolitics, especially when used in conjunction with machine learning to simulate the efficacy of potential investment strategies. He closes with a demonstration of how geopolitical views can be incorporated into portfolio management by walking the reader through the hypothetical optimization of an investment account dealing with geopolitical risk.

CHINA-KAZAKHSTAN STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP AND BILATERAL ECONOMIC COOPERATION

In our age of deepening globalization, when the international economic system is at the forefront of globalization, transformation is especially important. In the 21st century, both China and Kazakhstan are countries with rapid economic development and huge potential for economic growth. In this article, the bilateral relations between China and Kazakhstan are examined from the point of view of geopolitics. It is worth noting that bilateral relations have grown from cross-border trade relations in Xinjiang of China, to the strategic partnership "One Belt, One Road", which has benefited both China and Kazakhstan. In the economic sphere, Kazakhstan, located in Central Asia, is becoming increasingly important for China. Maintaining regional security is very important for the economic development of both sides. For Kazakhstan, the obvious advantage of cooperation with China is that Kazakhstan can serve as a communication center between China and the Western world, as well as establish transport and logistics links with the world as the main artery of international trade.

Geopolitical View of Ukraine: History of Development and Specifics of its Current Transformation

Abstract The main task of the research was to investigate and differentiate the historical stages of the formation of Ukraine's geopolitical view, based on the Ukrainian statehood history and works of key researches, which had been directly influenced by the evolution of its geopolitical consciousness and thinking. In the article, three main historical stages of Ukraine's geopolitical view formation were differentiated and the reason why the state's geopolitical view gradually transformed into the state's geopolitical interest after Ukraine attained independence was substantiated. The article includes a SWOT analysis of Ukraine's geopolitical location, based on which the state's geopolitical interests of local, regional and global levels were represented. As Ukraine is in the field of geopolitical orientation of many countries not only in Europe but also around the world, the study of the state's geopolitical view formation and current transformation is topical and can be useful for foreign researchers.

MILITARY POWER OF THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY IN REGIONAL PROJECTIONS OF TRANSBORDER MILITARY OPERATIONS

The article examines the modern military power of the Turkish Republic and its role in ensuring national security and advancing Turkey on the path of regional leadership. An analysis of Turkey’s geopolitical and strategic military position in the Middle East, as well as the geopolitical and strategic military views of the Turkish leadership, is presented. The article examines the potential of the sides and possible scenarios in the event of a hypothetical military conflict between Turkey and Iran, Egypt and Israel. The goals and methods of military operations conducted by the Turkish armed forces in Syria and Northern Iraq, Turkey’s participation in the civil war in Libya and its assistance to Azerbaijan in the war to liberate Nagorno-Karabakh are analyzed. The article concludes that Turkey’s modern armed forces, despite certain difficulties in development, are the most combat-ready in the NATO bloc and in the Middle East region and provide the Turkish leadership with a solution to all military and political problems.

Institutional Performance and Party Cues: Their Influence on Individual Geopolitical Preferences. The Case of Moldova (2012-2019)

ABSTRACT This paper examines the relationship between institutional trust and party cues, and individual geopolitical preferences in Moldova. Based on the idea that deciding whether to join either the EU or the EAEU is a complex decision, I argue that the use of national proxies could help some Moldovans in shaping their geopolitical preferences. Using survey data (2012–2019) and multilevel logistic regression, I show that citizens who trust the national institutions tend to align with the geopolitical preferences of those in charge of said institutions. Similarly, voters tend to support the geopolitical views of their preferred political parties.