Geodetic Instruments Research Articles

Разработка симулятора работы с геодезическим оборудованием в режиме виртуальной реальности

The introduction of virtual reality technologies in the educational process in addition to educational and industrial practices will allow а student to gain more experience with geodetic instruments under different conditions. The aim of the research is to develop a geodetic simulator, which can facilitate the experience of future specialists and improve the quality of the educational process. The article presents the development of the main menu of the simulator, the creation of a demo room of geodetic instruments, as well as testing of the developed software product. The result of the research is the creation of a fully functioning simulator of work with geodetic equipment in virtual reality, which allows supplementing both the distance learning process of future geodesists and the full-time educational process. Being a universal tool, the simulator will be useful not only for training future specialists, but also will help specialists with work experience to refresh their knowledge and practice with geodetic equipment at different locations.

ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ ВЛИЯНИЯ МЕТЕОРОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ФАКТОРОВ НА ТОЧНОСТЬ ГЕОДЕЗИЧЕСКИХ ИЗМЕРЕНИЙ

The article presents the results of studies of factors affecting the results of geodetic measurements during monitoring of the hydraulic structure of the North Caspian Sea Canal. Identification of factors affecting geodetic measurements and their accounting allows to increase the accuracy of monitoring of stationary structures. The results of geodetic monitoring of berthing structures by optical devices, including an electronic total station, are presented. The method of deformation control has been improved, which has led to the improvement of methods and types of geodetic instruments in automated monitoring systems. The results obtained were used in the dissertations of doctoral students, as well as in the educational process of Satbayev University.

ГЕОДЕЗІЯ, КАРТОГРАФІЯ І АЕРОФОТОЗНІМАННЯ

In applied geodesy tasks, it may be necessary to determine spatial angles. When bringing a 3D design of buildings and structures to the field with the help of an electronic total station (ES), it is important to verify the spatial angles between different elements of building structures such as roof overlaps, inclined anchors, and more, using the characteristic points' spatial coordinates. Modern geodetic instruments provide sufficiently high measurement accuracy (up to 1" and 1 mm, respectively). However, measuring the required angles with surveying instruments is not always possible for various reasons. First of all, it is impossible to place the device at the vertex of an angle if the location is not accessible. This paper develops a method for determining a spatial angle whose vertex is not available for measurement. Methods and results. To achieve this goal, we consider one of the options for its determination through the application of the cosine theorem with preliminary measurement or calculation of adjacent sides and vertical angles. This article also presents an algorithm for solving the problem with an estimation of the accuracy of establishing the required parameters. The basic formulas for determining the angles of a spatial triangle with an estimate of their accuracy are proposed. The paper studies the influence of the linear measurement values of the lengths of the sides on the values of the angles of a spatial triangle with the corresponding accuracy assessment. In particular, the root mean square errors of angle calculation were determined based on these calculations and mathematical modeling, namely, the ratio of the sides of the triangle. Through indirect measurements of the tower crane boom and roof spire, the spatial angle values were determined. The inclination of the crane boom to the base resulted in α=910.712±51", while the angle of the roof spire was α=150.109±35". Scientific novelty and practical significance. On the basis of the proposed methodology and numerical experiments, spatial angles were determined and their a priori accuracy was analyzed. This confirms the influence of linear measurements of side lengths on the values of spatial angles. The obtained results make it possible to apply the proposed method in engineering and geodetic works using BIM technologies in 3D space. This method can be used in the application software of electronic total station manufacturers to determine spatial angles in space when solving engineering problems.

Геодезическое обеспечение выверки формы отражающей поверхности главного зеркала радиотелескопа с применением лазерных трекеров

The article discusses the possibilities of coordinate-determining technology using high-precision geodetic instruments for alignment of reflecting surface shape of the radio telescope main mirror. It’s important for adjustment of reflecting surface shape and consequently performance of radio astronomy observations. The article provides general information about radio telescopes and consideres the existing classical geodesic and non-geodesic methods used in the process of solving the problem of shape alignment. The text describes the method of geodetic work on the form alignment using high-precision laser trackers. The methodology includes several stages from designing the geodetic control network and tracker location stations and processing and interpreting the measurement results. The conditions for performing high-precision measurements are given in the thesis. Mathematical processing of measurement results is performed in the Spatial Analyzer and based on coordinate systems transformation.

Определение точности геодезических измерений при реконструкции исторических объектов

Purpose: To consider the issue of the assignment of marking work accuracy at reconstruction stage of a technically complex object. To show the need in accuracy preliminary calculation. After the assignment of geodetic measurement accuracy, to perform geodetic network designing in Credo.dat software package. To determine leveling class that satisfies formed requirements. Methods: Measurement error theory, least squares method, parametric adjustment method, modeling of geodetic networks using package of applied programs. Results: Requirements for the accuracy of marking works were established based on the ones of current regulatory documents. The sequence of the formation of requirements for definition of accuracy in geodetic staking base locations and requirements for the accuracy of used geodetic instruments is considered. Separately, the accuracy of planned and altitudinal geodetic networks is calculated. The possibility to apply class III leveling program when creating altitudinal network to meet accuracy established requirements is shown. Practical significance: The sequence of geodetic work accuracy assignment during historical object reconstruction is outlined on a particular example, the proposed methodology can be recommended for a practical use.

THE STATE LAND CADASTRE IN THE V.I. VERNADSKY NOOSPHERIC CONCEPT

Cadastral systems are most often a geo-information system that ensures the accumulation and storage of typical information, for example, the state land cadastre is a single state geo-information system of information about lands located within the state border of Ukraine, their purpose, restrictions on their use, as well as data on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of lands, their assessment, on the distribution of lands between owners and users, on land reclamation networks and constituent parts of land reclamation networks But the use of standard cadastres does not allow solving a wide range of complex tasks related to information about land, real estate, water resources, etc., therefore, it conditions the development of conceptual provisions for the creation of an integrated intelligent cadastral system. Modern cadastres solve a narrow range of typical tasks, mainly providing the user with up-to-date information for solving private typical tasks. An attempt to integrate separate cadastral systems and the development of special programs that support decision-making by users (stakeholders) in various spheres of human activity will lead to a synergistic effect and the creation of collective artificial intelligence. This work formulates the problem of creating an information management system based on the methods of geomatics, as well as the methods and concepts of V. I. Vernadskyi's teaching. In our opinion, the weakening of the contradictions of the formulated problem lies in the way of creating a theoretical and methodological base, which should take into account the features of spatially distributed information modelling, as well as the creation of knowledge models in the field of geodesy and land management. The authors of this article are convinced that a new methodological paradigm of V. I. Vernadskyi's teaching is currently being formed. This belief is based on the great possibilities of modern information technologies, the development of modern geodetic instrumentation, as well as the results of modelling objects that require both high-precision measurements and soft calculations and linguistic assessments. The land cadastral information and management system should include executive and management subsystems and take into account the features of spatially distributed information modelling, as well as the creation of knowledge models in the field of geodesy and land management. Keywords: state land cadastre, geoinformation system, geomatics, information management system, cadastral data.

Updated concepts of seismic gaps and asperities to assess great earthquake hazard along South America

So far in this century, six very large-magnitude earthquakes (MW ≥ 7.8) have ruptured separate portions of the subduction zone plate boundary of western South America along Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. Each source region had last experienced a very large earthquake from 74 to 261 y earlier. This history led to their designation in advance as seismic gaps with potential to host future large earthquakes. Deployments of geodetic and seismic monitoring instruments in several of the seismic gaps enhanced resolution of the subsequent faulting processes, revealing preevent patterns of geodetic slip deficit accumulation and heterogeneous coseismic slip on the megathrust fault. Localized regions of large slip, or asperities, appear to have influenced variability in how each source region ruptured relative to prior events, as repeated ruptures have had similar, but not identical slip distributions. We consider updated perspectives of seismic gaps, asperities, and geodetic locking to assess current very large earthquake hazard along the South American subduction zone, noting regions of particular concern in northern Ecuador and Colombia (1958/1906 rupture zone), southeastern Peru (southeasternmost 1868 rupture zone), north Chile (1877 rupture zone), and north-central Chile (1922 rupture zone) that have large geodetic slip deficit measurements and long intervals (from 64 to 154 y) since prior large events have struck those regions. Expanded geophysical measurements onshore and offshore in these seismic gaps may provide critical information about the strain cycle and fault stress buildup late in the seismic cycle in advance of the future great earthquakes that will eventually strike each region.

CHOKAN VALIKHANOV’S ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORIENTAL SCIENCE

The article focuses on the research of Ch.Valikhanov of the closed cities of Kashgar. In addition, it is interesting for scientists to study the geography of the Tien Shan, with accurate drawing of objects on maps, ethnographic research, which made it possible to learn a lot about the life and culture of the peoples of Central Asia. It is noted that one of the significant contributions of the scientist to world science is the fragment of the epic “Manas” recorded and translated by him, which is still recognized as the best translation. His report “On the state of Altyshar ...” was published in an abridged version and was soon translated into English, German and French. The full text was published only in 1904. The publication of this book made Chocan one of the most famous oriental scholars of his time. The scientist’s research on the spiritual and material culture of the Kazakh people is a valuable source on the history of Kazakhstan. It should also be noted that Ch. Ch. Valikhanov, during his trips, mainly relied on eye-measuring surveys. And when traveling to Kashgaria, it was not possible to use geodetic or astronomical instruments at all. It was under such circumstances that Chokan discovered a masterful skill in describing and characterizing the areas he saw and mapping them. Key words: Ch. Valikhanov, Kashgar, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, orientalist, maps

АНАЛІЗ ТЕХНІЧНИХ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИК СУЧАСНИХ ГЕОДЕЗИЧНИХ ПРИЛАДІВ

It is known that the requirements for the quality of geodetic works are growing rapidly. The need for constant improvement of the general technical level of geodetic works, reliability, accuracy, manufacturability of geodetic production also grows. Issues of accuracy of geodetic works are of fundamental importance, because they ultimately determine the level of quality and reliability of geodetic networks and geodetic measurements. When assessing the reliability and accuracy of measurements, the main thing is to choose the perfect method of geodetic works and appropriate instruments and equipment, based on the specified technological requirements of the project and tolerances. Today's modern geodetic instrument is a product of high technology, which combines the latest advances in electronics, precision mechanics, optics, materials science and other sciences. Progress does not stand still, analog devices tested for years are replaced by modern digital and laser equipment. There were more requirements for geodetic works. They must be performed as soon as possible and with high accuracy. The article considers three types of modern geodetic equipment, namely: electronic theodolite, total station, and laser rangefinder. For a detailed analysis, the technical characteristics of the devices of several leading manufacturers were taken: Leica, Topcon, Sokkia, SOUTH, BOSCH. Their advantages and disadvantages, both in general and in comparison with each other, are revealed. The most relevant areas of application and features of use are analyzed. Despite the wide range of modern geodetic instruments, the question of the ratio of their price and quality remains relevant. A detailed study of the technical characteristics, taking into account the scope of application of a device allows the specialist to make the most appropriate choice. The accuracy, speed and cost of work are directly affected by the correct selection of equipment that will perform geodetic measurements.

Raspberry Pi Reflector (RPR): A Low‐Cost Water‐Level Monitoring System Based on GNSS Interferometric Reflectometry

AbstractAlthough reflectometry is not the primary application of Global Positioning System (GPS) and similar Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), fast‐growing GNSS tracking networks has led to the emergence of GNSS interferometric reflectometry technique for monitoring surface changes such as water level. However, scientific‐grade or geodetic GNSS instruments are expensive, which is a limiting factor for their prompt and more widespread deployment as a dedicated environmental sensor. We present a prototype called Raspberry Pi Reflector (RPR) that includes a low‐cost and low‐maintenance single‐frequency GPS module and a navigation antenna connected to an inexpensive Raspberry Pi microcomputer. A unit has been successfully operating for almost 2 years since March 2020 in Wesel (Germany) next to the Rhine river. Sub‐daily and daily water levels are retrieved using spectral analysis of reflection data. The river level measurements from RPR are compared with a co‐located river gauge. We find an Root‐Mean‐Square Error (RMSE) of 7.6 cm in sub‐daily estimates and 6 cm in daily means of river level. In August 2021, we changed the antenna orientation from upright to sideways facing the river. The RMSE reduced to 3 cm (sub‐daily) and 1.5 cm (daily) with the new orientation. While satellite radar altimetry techniques have been utilized to monitor water levels with global coverage, their measurements are associated with moderate uncertainties and temporal resolution. Therefore, such low‐cost and high‐precision instruments can be paired with satellite data for calibrating, validating and modeling purposes. These instruments are financially (<US$ 150 as of November 2021) and technically accessible worldwide.

A Novel Low-Cost GNSS Solution for the Real-Time Deformation Monitoring of Cable Saddle Pushing: A Case Study of Guojiatuo Suspension Bridge

Extreme loadings, a hostile environment and dangerous operation lead to the unsafe state of bridges under construction, especially large-span bridges. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) tend to be the best choice for real-time deformation monitoring due to the significant advantage of automation, continuation, all-weather operation and high precision. Unfortunately, the traditional geodetic GNSS instrument with its high price and large volume is limited in its applications. Hence, we design and develop low-cost GNSS equipment by simplifying the monitoring module. The performance of the proposed solution is evaluated through an experimental dynamic scenario, proving its ability to track abrupt deformation down to 3–5 mm. We take Chongqing Guojiatuo Suspension Bridge in China as a case study. We build a real-time low-cost GNSS monitoring cloud platform. The low-cost bridge GNSS monitoring stations are located at the top of the south and north towers, midspan upstream and downstream respectively and the reference station is located in the stable zone 400 m away from the bridge management buildings. We conducted a detailed experimental assessment of low-cost GNSS on 5 April and a real-time deformation detection experiment of the towers and main cables during the dynamic cable saddle pushing process on 26 February 2022. In the static experiment, the standard deviation of the residual using the multi-GNSS solution is 2 mm in the horizontal direction and 5 mm in the vertical direction. The multi-GNSS solution significantly outperforms the BDS/GPS single system. The dynamic experiment shows that, compared with the movement measured by the robotic total station, the horizontal error of the south tower and north tower measured by low-cost GNSS is below 0.005 m and 0.008 m respectively. This study highlights the potential of low-cost GNSS solutions for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) applications.

GNSS-IR multisatellite combination for soil moisture retrieval based on wavelet analysis considering detection and repair of abnormal phases

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) data received with standard geodetic instrumentation can be used to retrieve near-surface soil moisture (SM). However, low-quality SNR data usually cause abnormal phases in the fitting of nonlinear least squares (LLS) algorithms. This is not conducive to the effective use of multisatellite phases. In this paper, an SM retrieval method based on multisatellite combinations considering the detection and repair of abnormal phases is proposed. This method is aimed at using wavelet transform to separate the trend and modulation terms in SNR data, followed by detecting and repairing the abnormal phase for all satellites, finally constructing the multisatellite linear regression (MSLR) model for SM retrieval, and analysing the variation of accuracy with the increase of model testing days. The results indicate that with the coif5 wavelet, the trend and modulation terms of the SNR (compared to the traditional low-order polynomial) can be better separated. The abnormal phases can effectively be detected and repaired by combining the interquartile range and moving average filter, and further, the quality of the phases for each satellite can be improved. Furthermore, MSLR can fully combine the multisatellite phases to improve the accuracy of SM retrieval, and it is suitable for SM retrieval over different time periods.

Cyclic Fault Slip Under the Magnifier: Co‐ and Postseismic Response of the Pamir Front to the 2015 Mw7.2 Sarez, Central Pamir, Earthquake

AbstractThe constant increase of geodetic instrumentation over the past decades enables us to not only detect ever smaller tectonic signals but also to monitor their evolution in time and space. We present spatial and temporal slip variations observed on a fault affected by a large, intermediate‐field earthquake: the 2015 Mw7.2 Sarez, Central Pamir, earthquake ruptured the sinistral, NE‐trending Sarez‐Karakul fault system. 120–170 km North of the main rupture, the thin‐skinned, E‐trending Pamir thrust system bounding the Pamir to the North was co‐seismically activated. We derived co‐seismic offsets and post‐seismic rates observed by two dense, high‐rate Global Positioning System (GPS) profiles crossing the Pamir thrust system at different longitudes. The continuous GPS observations of the western profile focus on the dextral, NW‐striking Aramkungey fault segment that connects two thrust faults with opposite dip. We compare inter‐, co‐ and post‐seismic displacement rates by complementing the continuous data with survey‐mode GPS data and East rates derived from satellite radar interferometric displacement time‐series. All the GPS stations were shifted toward the epicenter against the direction of the interseismic load with an increased gradient in the Aramkungey fault segment. During the postseismic stage, the fault‐parallel and fault‐perpendicular rates were affected differently, suggesting gradual re‐locking of the Aramkungey fault after its unlocking by right‐lateral co‐seismic slip.

Specifying the morphometric parameters of grottoes and galleries of the Kungur Ice Cave following the results of the topographic and geodetic surveying

Introduction. The Kungur Ice Cave’s complex morphology indicates several stages of formation, starting with hypogenic (phreatic), and then epigenic (vadose) stages of speleogenesis. Cave formation conditions determined its specific water content and unique morphometry. Research objective was to create an actual topographic plan of the cave to establish morphometric parameters of the underground cavity (length, average width and height of the grottoes, amplitude, area and volume, etc.). Methods of research consisted in the graphical interpretation of the data obtained during topographic surveys performed by modern geodetic instruments and an alternative method of surveying underground cavities using a modified laser rangefinder. The surveys were carried out in the cave in the period from 2018 to 2021. Research results. For the first time, the volumes of individual grottoes and passages were calculated for the cave. In the protected part of the cave, the levels of lakes, the sole and roof of galleries were tied to absolute heights. The area occupied by the mantle ice in the cave was determined. The areas of lakes during the period of minimum and maximum water levels are calculated, as well as the strength of rocks over the entire cave. The area occupied by the mantle ice at the beginning of 2022 was determined. Within the framework of structural mapping, genetic types of cracks were recorded (tectonic, intrastratal, separation, hydration and tension, dissolution cracks), their total length was more than 38 km. We obtained marks of clay-dolomite interlayers separated in the ice-cave pack and marks of the stable water level at the time of the cave formation (10–12 thousand years ago). For the first time, the sole of the Nevolinskaya sequence was mapped in absolute hights, the area and number of organ pipes were revealed, and the zone of areal development of sulfate and carbonate breccia was identified. The scope of the results. The analysis of the obtained structural mapping data will allow us to assess the stability of the walls and the vaulted part of the grottoes, which will further increase the safety of visiting the excursion part of the cave.

GEODETIC SUPPLY FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

The construction of engineering structures when transferring the project to the area is impossible without geodetic work. The composition and sequence of engineering and geodetic works depend on the features of the design and construction of facilities and the type of structure. The purpose of the article is to consider geodetic works in the construction of engineering structures. The issues of performing engineering and geodetic works during the construction of structural elements of the bridge are considered. During the construction process, it is necessary to ensure full compliance with the design documentation and high accuracy of work performance. These requirements can be achieved by using high-precision geodetic works with constant monitoring of the installation work. At all stages of the bridge construction, geodetic works accompany the transfer to the terrain of the bridge axis, the resistance axis, perform a detailed breakdown during the construction of resistances and the installation of purlins. Also, the construction of individual parts of the building is constantly monitored, the dimensions and shape of the mounting elements are checked. When building large structures, it is necessary to have information about the points of the geodetic base of the bridge crossing, an extract from the catalog of coordinates and elevations of the geodetic base. The breakdown is carried out by tying to the points of the geodetic reference network, which has coordinates in the absolute or conditional system. Modern construction requires the use of new technologies and methods for performing geodetic work related to the introduction of electronic devices and programs for automated information processing into geodetic practice. Currently, a large number of geodetic instruments and new technologies in geodesy have been created, which differ from traditional ones. To carry out survey work, geodetic instruments, such as electronic total station and levels, were used. The electronic total station measures distances, angles and processes data directly in the process of field work, has an internal memory where it can store all the data obtained as a result of measurements. The digital level has a device for automatic registration of measurements along the rail and a processor for subsequent processing of all leveling results. During measurements, the device measures the distance to the rail and the elevation between points. This eliminates two main types of errors: observation errors when taking a reading and error in distance measurements. During the construction of supports, a temporary rapper is installed on each of them, which is tied to permanent rappers by leveling moves. The removal of marks on the supports is carried out by methods of geometric or trigonometric leveling. The coordinates of the rappers were received and entered into the local plan. Marks for serifs of the device with a retroreflective effect were pasted on the bridge supports. The data of coordinates and heights were entered into the total station memory. Geodetic work carried out during the construction of the span structure ensures the accuracy of its assembly in accordance with the project. After the installation is completed, the assembly results and deviations from the project are monitored. The construction of structural elements of engineering structures must comply with building codes and geometric parameters of the facility design.

Monitoring the Geometric Position of Transition Zones to Increase the Quality and Safety of Railway Lines

Transition zones on railway lines are localities with gradual changes in the construction layers in the connections between a fixed track and ballasted track or between a wide track and various railway objects, e.g., tunnels, bridges, culverts, etc. The different type of construction of transition zones causes a shock wave when the train passes, which can cause undesired effects on the stability of its construction, durability, and passengers’ comfort. For this reason, railway opera-tors pay increased attention to the construction inspection of these transition sections. The research deals with the description of the transition zones, methods, and results of their monitoring in experimental sections of the railway corridors. Innovative aspects are the measurements made using precise geodetic instruments as well as continuous measurements with the KRAB trolley. The analyses of measurements in the experimental sections of the track show whether the stability of the geometric spatial position is ensured.

Validation of a corner reflector installation at Côte d’Azur multi-technique geodetic observatory

We present the procedure we followed to design an artificial corner reflector (CR) at the Calern site of Côte d’Azur Observatory (France). Although still few in number, such reflectors are an integral part of the Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS) infrastructure. They can be used as a stable radar target in SAR images to connect local InSAR deformation maps to the global Terrestrial Reference Frame and for SAR absolute determination. During a test phase, the orientation of the CR was changed in order to be aligned toward all possible orbits of Sentinel-1A/1B satellites. On the different SAR images, the CR exhibits a high backscattering signal, and provides a Signal-to-Clutter Ratio larger than 26 dB. Since December 2018, the CR is specifically oriented toward the relative orbit 88. It is clearly detected as a PS in our InSAR analyses and as expected, the standard deviation of displacement measured on the CR is lower than on surrounding PS. A first local survey was performed to locate precisely this CR with respect to the existing geodetic instruments and annual campaigns have been carried out since then to insure its stability over time.

Probing the seismic cycle timing with coseismic twisting of subduction margins

Assessing the timing of great megathrust earthquakes is together crucial for seismic hazard analysis and deemed impossible. Geodetic instrumentation of subduction zones has revealed unexpected deformation patterns at subduction segments adjacent to those that hosted recent mega-earthquakes: coastal sites move landward with faster velocities than before the earthquake. Here, we show observations from the largest and best-monitored megathrust earthquakes, and from a scaled analog model, to reveal that these events create coseismic and postseismic deformation patterns typical of a complete gear-like rotation about a vertical axis, hereafter called twisting. We find that such twisting alters the interseismic velocity field of adjacent subduction segments depending on the time since the last earthquake. Early interactions accelerate while late interactions decelerate local kinematics. This finding opens the possibility of using megathrust earthquakes, the characteristics of the twisting pattern, and the ensuing geodetic velocity changes, as a proxy for estimating the timing of the seismic cycle at unruptured segments along the margin.

IMPROVEMENT THE MODELLING OF ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS FOR ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM): ANALYSIS OF AIR TEMPERATURE, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF AIR

The atmosphere is an undeniable source of error for any geodetic instruments. Surveyors require to have an accurate approximation of distance measurements in order to accurately determine the 3D coordinate of points. Electronic Distance Measurements (EDMs) are employed to measure accurate range to the target. They are typically functioning by laser in the domain of light or near infrared of electromagnetic spectrum (EM). Snell’s law has proved propagating wave through passing the different layers of atmosphere is deviated. This phenomenon is called the refractivity of wave. This deviation is introduced by different intersection between the beam and the object surface at different epochs of atmospheric change. By possessing the knowledge of group refractive index, it is possible to estimate the value of correction in ppm for measured distances caused by the variations in atmospheric elements. The changes in three components of air, temperature, pressure and humidity, in this study will be considered.

Applicability of Cost-Effective GNSS Sensors for Crustal Deformation Studies.

The geodetic monitoring of the continuous crustal deformation in a particular region has traditionally been the prerogative of the scientific communities capable of affording high-price geodetic-class instruments to track the tiny movements of tectonic plates without losing precision. However, GNSS technology has been continuously and rapidly growing, and in the last years, new cost-efficient instruments have entered the mass market, gaining the attention of the scientific community for potentially being high-performing alternative solutions. In this study, we match in parallel a dual-frequency low-cost receiver with two high-price geodetic instruments, all connected to the same geodetic antenna. We select North-East Italy as testing area, and we process the data together with the observations coming from a network of GNSS permanent stations operating in this region. We show that mm-order precision can be achieved by cost-effective GNSS receivers, while the results in terms of time series are largely comparable to those obtained using high-price geodetic receivers.