Development of a portable paper-based biosensor for the identification of genetically modified corn (Zea mays) and soybean (Glycine max).

The rising trade tension between India and the United States has put forth genetically modified (GM) crops into the spotlight once again, as Washington’s newly imposed tariffs on Indian goods have become entwined with the demands for access to India’s agricultural market particularly GM soy, corn, and related processed feed products raising alarm over both economic leverage and food sovereignty. Now India’s response has been resolute; there will be no compromise on GM food crop imports or commercial cultivation, with Prime Minister Modi and officials emphasizing repeatedly that farmer livelihoods and rural communities are «nonnegotiable» even amid growing tariff pressure. For India, the interests of its farmers are a top priority. We will not trade short-term economic concessions for the genetic integrity of our native crops or the autonomy of millions of smallholders.

Since Argentina became the world's largest consumer of glyphosate, Argentine producers’ lives, livelihoods, and landscapes have become intimately entwined with agrochemicals. This article follows a range of settler-farmers making “common sense” decisions about how to live and farm with agrochemicals in Argentina's genetically modified (GM) soy belt. In a process I call agrochemical worlding, settler-farmers perspectives about agrochemical safety are informed by long-standing arrangements about who determines how to use Argentine land, thereby shaping how settler-farmers move through a landscape saturated with agrochemicals. Using a progression of ethnographic encounters, I situate and then dislodge a sense of agrochemical safety by attending to enactments of different agrochemical ontologies. Attention to worlding practices at the intersection of settler common sense and toxicity both situates GM farming in Argentina as a form of settler agriculture, and agrochemical use as a contemporary technique of settler colonialism.

Feed importers in some EU member states face constraints on imports of genetically modified (GM) soy, a practice that may compromise the interests of EU livestock farmers. Using the cases of Sweden and Austria, we analyzed price transmission in the soy supply chain originating from Brazil, applying an asymmetric non-linear auto-regressive distributed lag (ARDL) model to identify short-run and long-run asymmetries. The results revealed significant asymmetric effects in how positive and negative price changes are absorbed within the feed industry. Notably, increases in the cost of Brazilian soy swiftly affect the prices for EU farmers, while cost reductions fail to trigger corresponding price decreases. Consequently, stronger constraints on GM soy imports are likely to exacerbate the competitiveness challenges faced by livestock farmers, primarily due to their reliance on non-GM soy. This implies that the restrictions on GM imports need to be relaxed or that low-cost local protein alternatives need to be developed.

Goal. To study the productive and slaughter qualities of young pigs and the chemical composition of muscle tissue and liver for the use of high-protein fodder — narrow-leaf lupine and genetically modified (GM) soybeans as a part of fodder grain mixes. Methods. In the experiment, two groups of experimental animals were formed: the first group (control) was fed with grain mixture № 1 with narrow-leaved lupine (alkaloid-free) and sunflower cake; the second group (experimental) received grain mixture № 2 with GM soy. The live weight of young pigs was determined by individual weighing before morning feeding, feed payment by live weight gain — by calculation method, slaughter quality — by the technology used at meat processing enterprises, and chemical composition — by generally accepted methods. Laboratory studies of soy, muscle tissue, and liver for the content of genetically modified organisms were carried out at the Ukrainian Laboratory of Quality and Safety of Agricultural Products. Results. Soybeans contained genetically modified desoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), had a target promoter sequence 35S + FMV of Cauliflower mosaic virus, and the NOS-terminator (nopaline synthase) of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. According to the results of qualitative analysis of the longest back muscle and liver of young pigs, no genetically modified organisms and products containing them were found. Conclusions. Optimizing the protein nutrition of young pigs due to genetically modified soybeans compared to the use of lupine and sunflower cake harmed live weight and average daily gains of animals (–11.6%) with the higher expenditure of exchangeable energy (+20.5%) per unit of gain. A comparative analysis of the chemical composition of the longest back muscle of gilts showed that in the muscle tissue of animals of the II (experimental) group, the concentration of dry matter, protein, and ash was lower by 0.60%, 1.10 and 0.08% abs., respectively, and fat — by 0.58% abs. greater than in animals of the I (control) group.

The present study compared genetically modified (GM) crops with crops from different farming practices using high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (HR-MS) and proteomics bioinformatics tools. In a previously published study, a number of significant differences regarding nutritional and elemental composition between a selection of GM, non-GM conventionally farmed, and organic soybeans have been found. In the present study, the proteome-level equivalence of the same samples was assessed using HR-MS. Direct comparison of tandem mass spectra and bottom-up proteomics bioinformatics indicated that proteomes of all samples investigated were very similar overall, with only a few distinct protein expression clusters obtained for GM and organic samples. Standard bottom-up proteome analyses identified 1025 soy proteins; of these 39 were found to be differentially expressed (p < 0.01) between GM, non-GM conventionally farmed, and organically farmed soybeans. Subsequent bioinformatics analyses of these proteins highlighted several potentially affected biochemical pathways that could contribute to the compositional differences reported earlier. In addition, protein markers separating conventionally, and organically farmed soybean seeds were found and peptide markers for the detection of GM soy in food and feed samples are described. Taken together, the data presented here shows that HR-MS based proteomics approaches can be used for the detection of transgenic events in food and feed grade soy, the differentiation of organically and conventionally farmed plants, and provide mechanistic explanations of effects observed on the phenotypic level of GM plants. HR-MS and proteomic bioinformatics thus should be considered key tools when developing molecular panel approaches for detection and safety assessments of novel crop varieties destined for use in feed and food.

Reviewed by: Seeds of Power: Environmental Injustice and Genetically Modified Soybeans in Argentina by Amalia Leguizamón Mario L. Cardozo Amalia Leguizamón Seeds of Power: Environmental Injustice and Genetically Modified Soybeans in Argentina. Durham: Duke University Press, 2020. xiii + 207 pp. Ills., notes, and index. $99.95 cloth (ISBN 9781478009788); $25.95 paper (ISBN 9781478010852); $15.31 electronic (ISBN 9781478012375). South american neighbors argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay, together with the United States, are the largest exporters of soybeans in the world. In these countries and others, the use of genetically modified (GM) varieties of soy, developed by Monsanto (now owned by Bayer), has allowed for the lucrative automation of the bean's cropping on vast rural expanses. GM soy is supposed to be part of a green revolution of high-tech, no-tillage agriculture that is profitable and sustainable, coupled with the highly effective and safe-for-humans glyphosate herbicide. The planet—with its ever-expanding human population and diminishing availability of land and water—gains from genetic engineering that helps produce more food with fewer resources. Soybeans are one of the most significant protein sources for humans in today's world—both as a legume for direct consumption and, more importantly, as farm-animal feed. In the communities where soybeans grow, however, global GM agriculture's benefits may materialize at insurmountable local costs. Soy expansion in Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay has caused extensive deforestation in biologically diverse landscapes, in addition to the dispossession, displacement, and, likely, the poisoning (via glyphosate) of indigenous peoples and traditional peasants. In addition, protest against soy expansion and related land disputes have given rise to the murder of some of these traditional peoples. In her excellent book, Seeds of Power: Environmental Injustice and Genetically Modified Soybeans in Argentina, Amalia Leguizamón has focused on less-studied social groups as well as subaltern rural peoples. The author shares her journey in investigating the various actors linked to soy production in Argentina, revealing a complex case of environmental injustice against some of the very people who profit from the industry. Leguizamón's research examines different attitudes towards GM soy expansion based on in-depth interviews and participant observation over a number of years and locations. Though the author finds an array of attitudes, from enthusiastic support to utmost rejection, the heart [End Page 191] of her book lies in discussing attitudes that are in between such extremes, related to actors who are in between soy elites and the subaltern peoples more obviously harmed by the industry. Most notably, middleclass women in the Province of La Pampa disclose their silent (or silenced?) discontentment towards the periodic spraying of glyphosate herbicide in their communities, to which they attribute the rise in local cases of cancer and birth defects. Despite the perception of hazard, these women recognize the necessity of an industry that has brought jobs (mostly for men/husbands) and prosperity to their communities. Leguizamón portrays these women in a humane light, caught between perceptions of financial security and a sense of powerlessness to reject the hazardous conditions soy fields may have brought to their communities. Ultimately, the author underscores that these women's failure to mobilize and protest plays a role in reaffirming Argentina's unwavering commitment to promoting soy expansion at multiple levels of governance and civil society. Interestingly, Leguizamón also recounts the perspective of a female agrarian technician who works for a GM soy enterprise. This technician's attitude is as supportive towards soy production as her male counterparts' attitudes; her criticism focuses on the difficulty, for women, to integrate the industry at higher positions. Furthermore, Leguizamón illustrates how a male-dominated and patriarchal system preconditions technicians (male and female) to accept the alleged safety of glyphosate, grounded in the industry's own—seemingly scientifically sound—precepts of GM agricultural best practices and self-funded envi ronmental impact studies proving the safety of glyphosate. Unsurprisingly, the author shares evidence from several interviews and field observations that soy producers violate environmental regulations and ignore the industry's best practices. Examples of violations that have imperiled locals' health include the previous or current absence of buffers between soy fields and...

The study of detection methods for genetically modified (GM) soy using certified reference material (CRM) and novel references molecules was operated on LightCycler real-time PCR machines system. The test results of this study demonstrated the methods used to be applicable to the specific quantitation of one line of GM soy. Independent repeat tests for 5, 2 and 1% CRM were 17, 11 and 11, and the test results mean ± SD were 4.89 ± 0.45, 1.98 ± 0.63 and 1.09 ± 0.05, respectively. Series 6 repeat test by use of CRM and references molecules, the results of CRM test were 5.45 ± 0.32, 2.42 ± 0.13 and 1.20 ± 0.09 (mean ± SD), and 4.83 ± 0.45, 2.09 ± 0.12 and 1.08 ± 0.10 for references molecules testing, to 5, 2, and 1% GM content, respectively. Further, soymilk was not detected by the ELISA method at OD450 when boiled under 70°C, 1-3 min but high to 100°C was detected by PCR method. Over 10 min under 121°C, DNA highly degradation detection was more difficult. Testing results should help support the practical detection for the GM soy.

Most soybean oil consumed in China is made from imported genetically modified (GM) soybeans, while livestock are fed imported GM soy meal and GM corn. However, no GM food crops are allowed to be planted in China at present. That puts China in a confusing situation where GM foods can be eaten but cannot be grown. Many studies suggest that it is partially due to Chinese consumers’ and government officials’ opposition to GM technology. This is the first study that examines different stakeholders’ and journalists’ attitudes toward the commercialization of GM non-food crops and GM food crops and investigates the attitude gaps with respect to these crops. From 2015 to 2016, surveys were conducted face-to-face and by email with 1730 respondents, including 1460 consumers, 54 farmers, 70 journalists, and 146 agricultural officials. We find that nearly 60% of respondents are supportive of the commercialization of GM non-food crops, but less than 30% of respondents support the commercialization of GM food crops. Around 50% of respondents have no confidence in the government’s management of biotechnology, while only 17% have confidence in the government’s management. Those with lack of confidence in the government’s management are less likely to support the commercialization of GM crops.

This paper aims to study market integration in the international trade of soybeans from 1999 to 2019. The hypothesis is that the market remained integrated between genetically modified (GM) and non-GM soy, even after stringent regulations against GM soy in major importers starting in 1999. Using FOB prices from major exporters of GM soy (USA and Argentina) and non-GM soy (Brazil), I test for market integration with cointegration analysis and Granger causality tests. All tests show that the market between all three exporters remained integrated throughout the sample period. Furthermore, Granger causality tests show that USA remains the sole price leader. Short run elasticities for reactions to American price changes in Brazil and Argentina are 0.33 and 0.25, respectively. The results validate the Law of One Price and inform policy decisions and forecasts efforts in this valuable commodity.

Cultivation and commercial utilization of genetically modified (GM) crops has significantly increased in many parts of the world and particularly in developing countries where food security is a challenge. Despite stringent regulations requiring that food made from GM foods should be properly labelled, evidence of unlabelled foods made from GM crops sold in local markets in many of these countries is increasing. This challenge provides the justification for the development of a reliable, accurate and effective screening method. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based method for detection of specific genes in GM crops is a common method used in many parts of the world. This study adapted a PCR-based technique to screen for the presence of specific DNA markers of genetic modification in finished maize and soya products collected from selected supermarkets and local markets across Nigeria. Results obtained indicated that 26.7% of samples tested contain GM specific genes. GM specific genes were also detected in some made-in-Nigeria processed food samples. The findings indicate that products made with GMO materials have entered the food chain in Nigeria at a modest scale and identifies the need for capacity building in techniques for GMO detection for regulatory agencies in Nigeria.&nbsp; &nbsp; Key words: Genetically modified (GM) organism, GM maize, GM soy, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), CaMV35S, Nigeria.

This article examines the unexpected outcomes in a puzzling new empirical case—the success of a coalition of small-scale beekeepers, indigenous peasant social movements, and NGOs in thwarting a multinational biotechnology firm’s efforts to commercialize genetically modified (GM) soy in Mexico. Sparked by news of pending EU rules for honey imports “contaminated” with GM pollen grains, beekeepers and their allies leveraged a transnational regulatory focusing event to downscale the forums for contestation of Mexican transgenic policy to subnational levels—where actors vested in regionally valuable honey production became pitted against actors promoting the national commercialization of GM soy across Mexico. The coalition’s success not only depended on an effective political and legal strategy, as might be expected, but hinged crucially on the unique characteristics of the traded commodities themselves—honey and soy. The case reveals the complex socioecological, market, and regulatory dynamics at play in the cultivation of crops and commodities for consumption and sale into local and global markets. Going beyond the actors and interests involved, the case shows how the physical characteristics of commodities act as constraints to the set of possible institutional alternatives to effectively redress policy problems. Regulations contrived with focal commodities in mind, like soy, can have significant spillover effects to more peripheral commodities, like honey, and the interactions and interdependencies shared among commodities in natural and human systems may in fact foster new windows of opportunity for producers to pursue policy change and innovation at multiple levels of governance.

Environmental consequences of introducing genetically modified soy feed in Sweden

Desde la introducción de los cultivos genéticamente modificados (GM), ha habido un crecimiento continuo en adopción de la tecnología y en la comercialización de alimentos y piensos derivados de cultivos GM alrededor del mundo. Gobiernos y organizaciones han desarrollado métodos para detectar rápidamente y con alto rendimiento los alimentos y piensos derivados de cultivos GM, y así verificar el cumplimiento de las regulaciones dirigidas a proveer información al consumidor. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la presencia de secuencias de ADN derivadas de maíz y soya GM, en una gama de piensos y alimentos, sin procesar y procesados, comercializados en Costa Rica, un mercado sin regulaciones que indiquen contenido transgénico en el etiquetado. Se empleó el método cualitativo estándar, de reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) en punto final, para la detección de material GM a partir las regiones comunes del promotor 35S y el terminador NOS, seguido de la detección específica de los eventos de maíz Bt11, MON810, GA21 y NK603, así como el evento de soya GTS 40-3-2, en una selección de alimentos y piensos disponibles en Costa Rica. Los resultados generales de la detección de secuencias derivadas de cultivos GM fueron: 86% para el promotor 35S, 72% para el terminador NOS y 40% para los eventos identificados. Los eventos más frecuentemente detectados fueron MON810, NK603 y Bt11. Los resultados demostraron que existen alimentos y piensos derivados de cultivos GM en el mercado local y que la significancia y viabilidad del etiquetado de los productos, para proveer información a los consumidores, debería ser abordado por las autoridades competentes. Sin embargo, todavía falta realizar estudios cuantitativos en los análisis de rutina, para detectar si el límite de material GM, establecido por la regulación sobre alimentos y piensos GM de la Unión Europea, se ha extralimitado.

This study aimed to screen for products containing Genetically Modified (GM) food in the Omani market using detection methods for the presence of Roundup Ready Soybean, Bt176 and MON810 maize in food products and to quantify it in positive samples using real time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). A total of 100 food samples were collected randomly from markets in Oman. Out of 59 samples, 8 (13.5%) were successfully amplified with the maize plant specific PCR. GM screening showed negative for all samples, which indicated low or no GM maize in the samples tested. Out of 57 soy containing samples, 40 (70%) were successfully amplified by the soybean plant specific PCR. Six samples out of the 40 (15%) were found positive for GM using P35S-cf3/P35S-cr4 and HA-nos118-f/HA-nos118-r, primer pairs and using GMO5/GMO9 and GMO7/GMO8 primer pairs for specific detection of Roundup Ready Soybean. Real time PCR (TaqMan™ system) was carried out for the positive Roundup Ready Soybean samples and results showed that 2 out of the positive GM soy samples contained more than 5%; a Soy Formula for Infants (imported) sample contained 21% GM soybean and raw soybean seeds (imported in bulk amounts and packed in Oman) contained 88% GM soybean. The results demonstrate for the first time the presence of GM-soy in food products in the Omani market, reinforcing the need for the use of qualitative and quantitative methods for GM detection in food products.

INTRODUCTIONIn 1996, Argentina pioneered the adoption of genetically modified (GM) soy, and other varieties of GM seeds - corn, cotton - soon followed. The genetic manipulation made the seeds resistant to the herbicide Roundup, based on the chemical glyphosate. As a broadspectrum, non-selective weed killer, glyphosate inhibits an enzyme in plants that does not exist in human and animal cells, killing all plant life except the crop. As a result GM soy seeds could be grown without any need to plow. The adoption of GM seeds in Argentina was surprisingly fast and widespread, and it marked a turning point (Vara 2005). Since then, the agricultural sector has embarked on a pathway of change in which intensive, high input commodity crop production has become dominant. Today Argentina is the third world producer of GM soy, after the US and Brazil; and is the world leader in soy oil (45% of the global market), and soy flour (43%) production. GM soy represents 25% of Argentine exports. Since 1996 the number of hectares under cultivation of GM crops has increased exponentially in Argentina, along with the growth of the use of glyphosate-based herbicides (REDUAS - Medicos de Pueblos Fumigados 2002).While agrarian productivity levels increased; rural populations started to report an increase in the incidence of certain pathologies which they associated to the use of glyphosate. Simultaneously, a growing number of independent studies from various countries have revealed links between pesticide exposure and the reported illnesses: cancer, reproductive health ailments, including miscarriages, birth defects, infertility, delayed pregnancies (Antoniou and Fagan 2012, Arbuckle, Lin, and Mery 2001, Axelrad, Howard, and McLean 2003, Benachour and Seralini 2009, Dallegrave et al. 2003, Hardell, Eriksson, and Nordstrom 2002, Marc, Mulner-Lorillon, and Belle 2004, Marc et al. 2005, Marc, Belle, et al. 2004, McDuffie et al. 2001, Paganelli et al. 2010, Richard et al. 2005, De Roos et al. 2005, Seralini et al. 2012, Dallegrave et al., 2003).However, the claims of those groups were almost entirely ignored by Argentina's regulatory, health and science and technology systems. In fact, all of these systems have played a key role in facilitating agricultural intensification, and further agro-biotechnological development. By the time that GM soy was approved (1996), glyphosate was already used for other purposes. Approved by the National Service of Sanitation and Food Quality (SENASA) in 1977, it was revalidated in 1992 as a product of low toxicity, implying no risk adopting a special classification of the World Health Organization which only considers lethal damage at acute levels of exposure (defined by the methodology DL 50)1. Based on this classification, no restrictions to the commercialization or use of glyphosate were determined in Argentina. The toxicological classification by SENASA never changed and no epidemiological or toxicological studies were conducted by the Ministry of Health in order to assess the non-lethal effects of glyphosate at chronical exposure reported by rural populations and social movements.Even if protests were dissipated without impacting national regulations, some promoted new protective measures that restricted the use of glyphosate-based pesticides at the local level. Even if at the national level there was no change, some progress has been made at the local level2. A set of regulations to fill the gaps in the national regulatory framework have been enacted by municipal and provincial legislators (Vara, Piaz, and Arancibia 2012). These new laws and ordinances have established pesticide-free zones around populated areas and restricted ground and aerial spraying of pesticides including glyphosate based herbicides. However, the enforcement of the new laws and ordinances has proved very difficult, as the surveillance capacity of the police is almost nonexistent and penalties for infractions are hard to implement. …

The success of agricultural biotechnology depends as much on consumer acceptance of Genetically Modified (GM) products as it does on the ability to create them. To explore public perceptions of GM food products, we surveyed a nationally representative sample of 1148 American adults during October 23–27, 2013. The data was collected by GFK Knowledge Networks from an internet panel recruited using proportional random sampling. The data was weighted to project to the U.S. population, and has a margin of error of ± 3%. The results show that despite the ongoing controversy over GM foods, 50% of Americans report having heard or read little or nothing about them, 55% report that they know very little or nothing at all about them, and two-thirds (66%) say they have never discussed the issue of GM foods with anyone. Estimates are that 75% of processed foods in the U.S. contain ingredients derived from GM crops. However, only 43% of Americans say that they believe that there are foods containing GM ingredients in supermarkets right now, while 4% say there are no such foods in U.S. supermarkets, and 51% say they don't know. Many of those who believe that there are GM foods in the supermarket are confused about which products are available. For example, while 75% correctly believe that there are products in U.S. supermarkets containing GM corn, and 59% correctly believe that there are products containing GM soy, nearly as many (56%) believe that GM tomatoes, GM Wheat (55%), and GM Chicken (50%) products are available and 35% believe that GM salmon are currently for sale. Moreover, even though GM food products have been on the market in the U.S. for more than two decades, only 26% of Americans believe that they have ever eaten a food containing GM ingredients. Yet, while most Americans say they have heard and read little about GM foods, know little about them, have never had a conversation about them, don't believe they are currently in the supermarket, and don't believe they have ever eaten them, most are willing to express an opinion about the acceptability of GM food products. When asked directly, only 10% of consumers say they approve of GM animal-sourced food products, 44% say they disapprove of them, and 43% neither approve nor disapprove of them, or are unsure. However, there is much greater public acceptance expressed when specific product benefits are described.

This paper explores the unequal distribution of the environmental and social costs and benefits of the genetically modified (GM) soy model in Argentina and its impact on grievance formation and the emergence of contestation. In the 1990s, Argentina transitioned into a neoliberal agro‐industrial model based on producing GM soy for export. Though celebrated as a success, the expansion of GM soy monocultures has brought widespread socio‐ecological disruption. Various social actors have started to mobilize against the resulting environmental injustice. I focus on the peasant–indigenous movement in the north of the country, which is struggling for land rights, and the movements against agrochemical spraying in the central Pampas region. These groups, which are relatively powerless to control resources where they live, and that experience little or no benefit from GM soy production, nevertheless bear most of its social and ecological costs. These struggles link environmental and social well‐being, becoming struggles for ecological sustainability as well as social justice and equity.

Soy is commonly added to various foods because of its quality and health benefits. However, it is also the most commonly cultivated genetically modified (GM) crop. Hence, detection of GM soy in food preparations is an important goal of food science research. Although DNA is relatively stable during processing, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used to analyze processed food products, the processing factor-induced DNA degradation limits these methods. We evaluated the effect of different baking temperatures on the detection of GM soy in cookies by preparing cookies containing various amounts of GM soy and baking them at different temperatures and for different times. The effect of heat on the DNA quality was inspected by detecting the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter and species-specific lectin sequences. As conclusion, the heating process affects the sensitivity of the PCR screening of GM organisms significantly, and the detection limit is elevated.

In routine analysis screening methods based on real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction) are most commonly used for the detection of genetically modified (GM) plant material in food and feed. Screening tests are based on sequences frequently used for GM development, allowing the detection of a large number of GMOs (genetically modified organisms). Here, we describe the development and validation of a tetraplex real-time PCR screening assay comprising detection systems for the regulatory genes Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S promoter, Agrobacterium tumefaciens nos terminator, Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S terminator and Figwort Mosaic Virus 34S promoter. Three of the four primer and probe combinations have already been published elsewhere, whereas primers and probe for the 35S terminator have been developed in-house. Adjustment of primer and probe concentrations revealed a high PCR sensitivity with insignificant physical cross-talk between the four detection channels. The sensitivity of each PCR-system is sufficient to detect a GMO concentration as low as 0.05% of the containing respective element. The specificity of the described tetraplex is high when tested on DNA from GM maize, soy, rapeseed and tomato. We also demonstrate the robustness of the system by inter-laboratory tests. In conclusion, this method provides a sensitive and reliable screening procedure for the detection of the most frequently used regulatory elements present in GM crops either authorised or unauthorised for food.