Generation Of Continental Crust Research Articles

Rates of generation and growth of the continental crust

Models for when and how the continental crust was formed are constrained by estimates in the rates of crustal growth. The record of events preserved in the continental crust is heterogeneous in time with distinctive peaks and troughs of ages for igneous crystallisation, metamorphism, continental margins and mineralisation. For the most part these are global signatures, and the peaks of ages tend to be associated with periods of increased reworking of pre-existing crust, reflected in the Hf isotope ratios of zircons and their elevated oxygen isotope ratios. Increased crustal reworking is attributed to periods of crustal thickening associated with compressional tectonics and the development of supercontinents. Magma types similar to those from recent within-plate and subduction related settings appear to have been generated in different areas at broadly similar times before ∼3.0 Ga. It can be difficult to put the results of such detailed case studies into a more global context, but one approach is to consider when plate tectonics became the dominant mechanism involved in the generation of juvenile continental crust. The development of crustal growth models for the continental crust are discussed, and a number of models based on different data sets indicate that 65%–70% of the present volume of the continental crust was generated by 3 Ga. Such estimates may represent minimum values, but since ∼3 Ga there has been a reduction in the rates of growth of the continental crust. This reduction is linked to an increase in the rates at which continental crust is recycled back into the mantle, and not to a reduction in the rates at which continental crust was generated. Plate tectonics results in both the generation of new crust and its destruction along destructive plate margins. Thus, the reduction in the rate of continental crustal growth at ∼3 Ga is taken to reflect the period in which plate tectonics became the dominant mechanism by which new continental crust was generated.

Earth's Continental Lithosphere Through Time

The record of the continental lithosphere is patchy and incomplete; no known rock is older than 4.02 Ga, and less than 5% of the rocks preserved are older than 3 Ga. In addition, there is no recognizable mantle lithosphere from before 3 Ga. We infer that there was lithosphere before 3 Ga and that ∼3 Ga marks the stabilization of blocks of continental lithosphere that have since survived. This was linked to plate tectonics emerging as the dominant tectonic regime in response to thermal cooling, the development of a more rigid lithosphere, and the recycling of water, which may in turn have facilitated plate tectonics. A number of models, using different approaches, suggest that at 3 Ga the volume of continental crust was ∼70% of its present-day volume and that this may be a minimum value. The continental crust before 3 Ga was on average more mafic than that generated subsequently, and this pre-3 Ga mafic new crust had fractionated Lu/Hf and Sm/Nd ratios as inferred for the sources of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite and later granites. The more intermediate composition of new crust generated since 3 Ga is indicated by its higher Rb/Sr ratios. This change in composition was associated with an increase in crustal thickness, which resulted in more emergent crust available for weathering and erosion. This in turn led to an increase in the Sr isotope ratios of seawater and in the drawdown of CO2. Since 3 Ga, the preserved record of the continental crust is marked by global cycles of peaks and troughs of U-Pb crystallization ages, with the peaks of ages appearing to match periods of supercontinent assembly. There is increasing evidence that the peaks of ages represent enhanced preservation of magmatic rocks in periods leading up to and including continental collision in the assembly of supercontinents. These are times of increased crustal growth because more of the crust that is generated is retained within the crust. The rates of generation of continental crust and mantle lithosphere may have remained relatively constant at least since 3 Ga, yet the rates of destruction of continental crust have changed with time. Only relatively small volumes of rock are preserved from before 3 Ga, and so it remains difficult to establish which of these are representative of global processes and the extent to which the rock record before 3 Ga is distorted by particular biases.

Generation and evolution of Palaeoarchaean continental crust in the central part of the Singhbhum craton, eastern India

Palaeoarchaean granitoids are exposed over wide area in the Singhbhum craton whose origin and role in crustal evolution are not well constrained. This study presents whole-rock and mineral chemical data coupled with zircon U-Pb dating and Hf isotope results on such granitoids from the central part of the craton to understand their petrogenesis, tectonic setting and role in continental crustal evolution. The first phase of granitoid magmatism in this area is represented by a 3.47Ga Na-rich, gneissic tonalite belonging to the Archaean TTG (tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite) suite. This rock is characterized by high-HREE (heavy rare earth elements), negative Eu anomaly, low Sr/Y ratio and positive zircon Hf isotope signature (εHft=+2.1 to +4.8). It is interpreted to be formed by shallow melting of a juvenile mafic source. At 3.35Ga a silicic, ferroan porphyritic biotite granite formed. It shows variable K/Na, low Y and high Sr/Y, moderately fractionated HREE and positive zircon εHft (+1.8 to +4.0), and is explained as a product of high-temperature melting of a heterogeneous, juvenile source consisting of tonalites and mafic rocks at lower crustal depth. The final phase of granitoid magmatism is marked by a 3.30Ga non-porphyritic ferroan, silica-rich biotite granite. Geochemical characteristics like moderately high K, moderately fractionated HREE, low Ca and Sr/Y, and zircon εHft (+0.8 to +3.7) suggest that the granite was formed by high-pressure melting of a tonalite-dominated source with short crustal residence. All the three granitoid phases display low Mg, Ni and Cr contents and magnesium number (Mg#) precluding direct involvement of mantle in their origin. Rather, crustal reworking caused by episodic plume-related mafic-ultramafic magma underplating and intraplating in an oceanic plateau setting is suggested as the possible mechanism for formation of the granitoids. Successive crustal reworking events involved progressively greater amount of previously formed felsic crust generating more evolved, K-rich granitoids. It appears to be a globally important process which led to effective crustal differentiation and maturing of the cratons during Palaeoarchaean.

Crustal basement controls granitoid magmatism, and implications for generation of continental crust in subduction zones: A Sr–Nd–Hf–O isotopic study from the Paleozoic Tongbai orogen, central China

Ascertaining the petrogenesis of granitoid rocks in subduction zones holds the key for understanding the processes of how continental crust is produced. The synchronous Taoyuan and Huanggang plutons occur in two different geological units of the Paleozoic Tongbai orogen of central China. They provide an optimal opportunity for a study to address the role of the crustal basement in generating voluminous granitoid magmatism in subduction zones. The Taoyuan and Huanggang plutons have identical U–Pb zircon crystallization ages of 440–444Ma, which are temporally related to northward subduction of the Paleotethyan Ocean. The Taoyuan samples show high SiO2 (73.36–79.16%) and low Al2O3 (12.00–13.45%) contents, Mg numbers (20.6–38.2), and Sr/Y (2.04–10.1) and (La/Yb)N (2.34–7.32) ratios with negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.33–0.93). They yielded positive εNd(t) (+3.0 to +6.7) and εHf(t) (+11.8 to +13.2) values, elevated initial Sr isotopic ratios (0.7040–0.7057) and relatively low zircon δ18O values of 4.62–5.39‰. These suggest that they were produced through partial melting of hydrothermally altered lower crust of the accreted Erlangping oceanic arc. In contrast, the Huanggang samples exhibit variable whole-rock geochemical and isotopic compositions with SiO2 contents of 57.01–64.42wt.%, initial Sr isotopic ratios of 0.7065–0.7078, and εNd(t) values of −5.7 to −9.4. Additionally, they have high zircon δ18O values of 7.57–8.45‰ and strongly negative zircon εHf(t) values of −14.4 to −10.5. They were suggested to have been mainly derived from ancient continental crust of the Kuanping crustal unit with the addition of 20–40% juvenile, mantle-derived material. Accordingly, the granitoids in both oceanic and continental arcs are likely to be mainly derived from intracrustal melting of their crustal basement. It is revealed by the Huanggang pluton that little net continental crust growth occurs in continental arcs, and addition of new volume of continental crust may be balanced by the loss of old mafic lower continental crust. Continental growth was likely achieved through the accretion and subsequent differentiation of oceanic arcs, as manifested by the Taoyuan pluton.

Short episodes of crust generation during protracted accretionary processes: Evidence from Central Asian Orogenic Belt, NW China

Accretionary orogens are major sites of generation of continental crust but the spatial and temporal distribution of crust generation within individual orogens remains poorly constrained. Paleozoic (∼540–270 Ma) granitic rocks from the Alati, Junggar and Chinese Tianshan segments of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) have markedly bimodal age frequency distributions with peaks of ages at ∼400 Ma and 280 Ma for the Altai segment, and ∼430 Ma and 300 Ma for the Junggar and Chinese Tianshan segments. Most of the magma was generated in short time intervals (∼20–40 Ma), and variations in magma volumes and in Nd–Hf isotope ratios are taken to reflect variable rates of new crust generation within a long-lived convergent plate setting. The Junggar segment is characterized by high and uniform Nd–Hf isotope ratios (εNd(t)=+5 to +8; zircon εHf(t)=+10 to +16) and it appears to have formed in an intra-oceanic arc system. In the Altai and Chinese Tianshan segments, the Nd–Hf isotope ratios (εNd(t)=−7 to +8; zircon εHf(t)=−16 to +16) are lower, although they increase with decreasing age of the rock units. The introduction of a juvenile component into the Chinese Tianshan and Altai granitic rocks appears to have occurred in continental arc settings and it reflects a progressive reduction in the contributions from old continental lower crust and lithospheric mantle. Within the long-lived convergent margin setting (over ∼200 Ma), higher volumes of magma, and greater contributions of juvenile material, were typically emplaced over short time intervals of ∼20–40 Ma. These intervals were associated with higher Nb/La ratios, coupled with lower La/Yb ratios, in both the mafic and granitic rocks, and these episodes of increased magmatism from intraplate-like sources are therefore thought to have been in response to lithospheric extension. The trace element and Nd–Hf isotope data, in combination with estimates of granitic magma volumes, highlight that crust generation rates are strongly non-uniform within long-lived accretionary orogens. The estimated crust generation rates range from ∼0.1 to ∼40 km3/km/Ma for the Paleozoic record of the CAOB, and only comparatively short (20–40 Ma) periods of elevated magmatic activity had rates similar to those for modern intra-oceanic and continental arcs.

SHORT EPISODES OF CRUST GENERATION DURING PROTRACTED ACCRETIONARY PROCESSES: EVIDENCE FROM CENTRAL ASIAN OROGENIC BELT, NW CHINA

Abstract Accretionary orogens are major sites of generation of continental crust but the spatial and temporal distribution of crust generation within individual orogens remains poorly constrained. Paleozoic (∼540–270 Ma) granitic rocks from the Alati, Junggar and Chinese Tianshan segments of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) have markedly bimodal age frequency distributions with peaks of ages at ∼400 Ma and 280 Ma for the Altai segment, and ∼430 Ma and 300 Ma for the Junggar and Chinese Tianshan segments. Most of the magma was generated in short time intervals (∼20–40 Ma), and variations in magma volumes and in Nd–Hf isotope ratios are taken to reflect variable rates of new crust generation within a long-lived convergent plate setting. The Junggar segment is characterized by high and uniform Nd–Hf isotope ratios ( e Nd ( t ) = + 5 to + 8 ; zircon e Hf ( t ) = + 10 to + 16 ) and it appears to have formed in an intra-oceanic arc system. In the Altai and Chinese Tianshan segments, the Nd–Hf isotope ratios ( e Nd ( t ) = − 7 to + 8 ; zircon e Hf ( t ) = − 16 to + 16 ) are lower, although they increase with decreasing age of the rock units. The introduction of a juvenile component into the Chinese Tianshan and Altai granitic rocks appears to have occurred in continental arc settings and it reflects a progressive reduction in the contributions from old continental lower crust and lithospheric mantle. Within the long-lived convergent margin setting (over ∼200 Ma), higher volumes of magma, and greater contributions of juvenile material, were typically emplaced over short time intervals of ∼20–40 Ma. These intervals were associated with higher Nb/La ratios, coupled with lower La/Yb ratios, in both the mafic and granitic rocks, and these episodes of increased magmatism from intraplate-like sources are therefore thought to have been in response to lithospheric extension. The trace element and Nd–Hf isotope data, in combination with estimates of granitic magma volumes, highlight that crust generation rates are strongly non-uniform within long-lived accretionary orogens. The estimated crust generation rates range from ∼0.1 to ∼40 km3/km/Ma for the Paleozoic record of the CAOB, and only comparatively short (20–40 Ma) periods of elevated magmatic activity had rates similar to those for modern intra-oceanic and continental arcs.

Tectonic significance of the Meso- to Neoarchean complexes in the basement of the southern Brasília Orogen

The late Archean was a period of important changes in geodynamic processes and magmatism style. This period seems to mark the time when crustal reworking processes start to predominate over new continental crust generation and is most likely related to the beginning of continental collision and “modern-style” plate tectonics. This study reports a new dataset of zircon U-Pb and Hf isotopes, whole-rock geochemistry and Nd isotopes from Meso- to Neoarchean complexes within the basement of the Neoproterozoic southern Brasília Orogen, SE Brazil. The data provide important insights into the petrogenesis of Mesoarchean TTG suites and their implications for tectonic settings of Archean continental crust generation. Isotopic and geochemical data constrain the timing and nature of the Neoarchean transition from TTG-type to high-K granitic magmatism in the studied area and we discuss the involvement of these complexes in the southern São Francisco paleocontinent assembly. A well-defined period of TTG-type magmatism between 3.00 and 2.96Ga is identified, with mostly suprachondritic εHf(t) values, between 0 and +5.1, associated with average two-stage model ages between 3.2 and 3.3Ga. Whole-rock Nd analyses yield TDM ages between 3.2 and 3.4Ga. These TTGs are interpreted as juvenile additions to the continental crust most likely generated by partial melting of a hydrous mafic crust. The variable trace element compositions of the analyzed TTG samples indicate partial melting at different depths at the same time. These results strongly support the idea of a non-unique tectonic setting of Archean continental crust generation. An additional period of Neoarchean high-K granitic magmatism at ca. 2.76Ga is interpreted to record the transition from TTG-type to high-K granitoid magmatism in the studied area. This Neoarchean magmatism is associated with less radiogenic isotopic signatures with mostly negative εHf(t) values. The isotopic and geochemical signatures suggest that reworking of the Mesoarchean TTG crust, most likely in a collisional setting, was the main mechanism for the generation of the Neoarchean granitic suite. This supports the idea that the Neoarchean transition from TTGs to granites was most likely a result of the beginning of continental collision processes.

Metal source and tectonic setting of iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits: Evidence from an in situ Nd isotope study of titanite from Norrbotten, Sweden

Titanite occurs as a widespread accessory phase in mineralised zones and alteration associated with iron oxide-copper gold (IOCG) and iron oxide-apatite (IOA) deposits of Norrbotten County, Sweden, and is a major host of the REE in these deposits. In situ analyses of SmNd isotope ratios in titanites previously analysed for UPb geochronology and trace element composition confirms previous interpretations of grain scale isotopic heterogeneity. Initial Nd-isotope ratios expressed relative to CHUR range from ~−3 to −8 in IOA deposits, from ~−1 to −9 in IOCG deposits, and from +2 to −4 in the most Cu-rich, deformed IOCG deposits of the Nautanen Deformation zone. Within individual IOA deposits εNd varies relative to CHUR: from −3.1 to −4.0 at Valkommen (Malmberget), from −1.4 to −5.7 in grain cores, and −7.2 to −8.2 in grain rims rim at Gruvberget; and from −3.0 to −6.0 in grain cores and from −5.8 to −7.1 in grain rims at Luossavaara. In IOCG deposits at Rakkurijärvi εNd varies from −6.1. to −7.1, and in deformed IOCG deposits at Nautanen from −1.3 to −2.3. These values are consistent with the derivation of the REE, and potentially economically enriched metals, from the local volcanic sequence, either via granitic melts, or directly by leaching by metasomatic fluids. The most Cu-rich deposits reflect the involvement of more basic protoliths. The age distribution of these deposits suggest IOA deposit formation during the collisional phase of the Svecofennian orogeny (~1.9–1.8Ga), and IOCG mineralisation during this phase and during post-orogenic collapse (~1.8–1.7Ga), whilst model ages indicate the ultimate enrichment of the continental crust in these metals during pre-collisional extensional and subduction-related basic magmatism. These processes underscore the importance of continental cycles both in producing the preserved geological record of orogenic ore deposition, and in the generation of fertile continental crust, from which metals can be mobilised by subsequent events.

Evolution of young oceanic lithosphere and the meaning of seafloor subsidence rate

AbstractPlate tectonics, a special class of mantle convection so far observed only on the Earth, is responsible for a vast array of geological processes, from the generation of continental crust to the modulation of atmospheric composition. Whereas conditions for its operation are still debated, the minimum requirement is generally thought that surface plates become denser than the underlying asthenosphere so that they can subduct. Recent studies, however, have raised the possibility that even mature oceanic plates remain buoyant because chemical buoyancy is too high to be overcome by negative thermal buoyancy, challenging the basic tenet of plate tectonics. Here we show that on the basis of new integrated geophysical and petrological modeling, oceanic plates do become negatively buoyant after ∼30 Myr. Our modeling also indicates that the seafloor would subside at a rate of ∼500 m Myr−1/2, which is considerably faster than the observed rate of ∼320 m Myr−1/2. We suggest that this discrepancy in subsidence rate is best explained by the combined effect of incomplete viscous relaxation within oceanic plates, radiogenic heat production in the convecting mantle, and the secular cooling of the Earth.

Continental growth through accreted oceanic arc: Zircon Hf–O isotope evidence for granitoids from the Qinling orogen

The continental crust is commonly viewed as being formed in subduction zones, but there is no consensus on the relative roles of oceanic or continental arcs in the formation of the continental crust. The main difficulties of the oceanic arc model are how the oceanic arcs can be preserved from being subducted, how we can trace the former oceanic arcs through their high-Si products, and how the oceanic arcs can generate the high-Si, K-rich granitoid composition similar to the upper continental crust. The eastern Qinling orogen provides an optimal place to address these issues as it preserves the well-exposed Erlangping oceanic arc with large amounts of granitoids. In this study, we present an integrated investigation of zircon U–Pb ages and Hf–O isotopes for four representative granitoid plutons in the Erlangping unit. In situ zircon SIMS U–Pb dating indicated that the Zhangjiadazhuang, Xizhuanghe, and Taoyuan plutons formed at 472±7, 458±6 and 443±5Ma, respectively, all of which postdated the deep subduction of the Qinling microcontinent under the Erlangping oceanic arc. The Zhangjiadazhuang, Xizhuanghe, and Taoyuan plutons are sodic granitoid and have highly positive εHf(t) (+7.6 to +12.9) and relatively low δ18O (4.7–5.0‰) values, which were suggested to result from prompt remelting of hydrothermally altered lower oceanic crust of the accreted Erlangping oceanic arc. The zircon grains from the Manziying monzogranitic pluton show similar Hf–O isotopic compositions to those of the Xizhuanghe pluton, and thus the Manziying monzogranitic pluton was likely derived from the dehydration melting of previous tonalites as exemplified by the Xizhuanghe pluton. The deep subduction of Qinling microcontinent resulted in the accretion of the Erlangping oceanic arc, which implies that arc–continent collision provides an effective way for preventing oceanic arcs from being completely subducted. The highly positive εHf(t) and relatively low δ18O values of zircon grains from the granitoids in the Erlangping unit reveal that the continental crust can acquire its high-Si, K-rich nature from accreted oceanic arcs through differentiation by post-accretional magmatism, and thus highlight the significance of oceanic arcs for the generation of continental crust.

The composition of nanogranitoids in migmatites overlying the Ronda peridotites (Betic Cordillera, S Spain): the anatectic history of a polymetamorphic basement

The study of the composition of primary melts during anatexis of high-pressure granulitic migmatites is relevant to understand the generation and differentiation of continental crust. Peritectic minerals in migmatites can trap droplets of melt that forms via incongruent melting reactions during crustal anatexis. These melt inclusions commonly crystallize and form nanogranitoids upon slow cooling of the anatectic terrane. To obtain the primary compositions of crustal melts recorded in these nanogranitoids, including volatile concentrations and information on fluid regimes, they must be remelted and rehomogenized before analysis. A new occurrence of nanogranitoids was recently reported in garnets of mylonitic metapelitic gneisses (former high pressure granulitic migmatites) at the bottom of the prograde metamorphic sequence of Jubrique, located on top of the Ronda peridotite slab (Betic Cordillera, S Spain). Nanogranitoids within separated chips of cores and rims of large garnets from these migmatites were remelted at 15 kbar and 850, 825 or 800 °C and dry (without added H2O), during 24 h, using a piston cylinder apparatus. Although all experiments show glass (former melt) within melt inclusions, the extent of rehomogenization depends on the experimental temperature. Experiments at 850–825 °C show abundant disequilibrium microstructures, whereas those at 800 °C show a relatively high proportion of rehomogenized nanogranitoids, indicating that anatexis and entrapment of melt inclusions in these rocks likely occurred at pressures ≤1.5 GPa and temperatures close to 800 °C. Electron microprobe and NanoSIMS analyses show that experimental glasses are leucogranitoid and peraluminous, though define two distinct compositional groups. Type I melt inclusions correspond to K-rich, Ca- and H2O-poor leucogranitic melts, whereas type II melt inclusions represent K-poor, Ca- and H2O-rich granodioritic to tonalitic melts. Type I and II melt inclusions are found in most cases at the cores and rims of large garnets porphyroclasts, respectively. We tentatively interpret these two distinct melt compositions as suggesting that these former migmatites underwent two melting events under contrasting fluid regimes, possibly during two different orogenic periods. This study demonstrates the strong potential of melt inclusions studies in migmatites and granulites in order to unravel their anatectic history, particularly in strongly deformed rocks where most of the classical anatectic microstructures and macrostructures have been erased during deformation.

Paleoproterozoic continental crust generation events at 2.15 and 2.08 Ga in the basement of the southern Brasília Orogen, SE Brazil

New zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MS data combined with Nd-Hf isotopes and whole-rock geochemistry provide constraints on timing and tectonic setting of Paleoproterozoic continental crust generation events in the basement of the Neoproterozoic southern Brasília Orogen, SE Brazil. The Paleoproterozoic basement, designated as the Pouso Alegre Complex, comprises mainly metatexitic tonalitic to granodioritic orthogneisses with lenses and boudins of metamafic rocks. Minor porphyroclastic granite bodies also occur. Two well-defined crystallization ages groups were recognized at 2.14–2.15Ga (6 samples; weighted average of 2146.7±6.6Ma) and 2.07–2.08Ga (5 samples; weighted average of 2078.7±6.7Ma). Inheritance of older zircon grains is almost absent. Whole-rock Nd data show juvenile signatures with TDM ages between 2.16 and 2.37Ga associated with positive ɛNd(t) values from +0.16 to +2.85. Zircon Hf LA-ICP-MS analysis yields positive ɛHf(t) values from +1.9 to +8.7. Whole-rock geochemical analyses show a wide range of SiO2 contents from 52 to 76wt% with felsic types predominating over mafic ones. The analyzed samples show high concentrations of Rb, Ba, Th, U and low Nb/La ratios, which are characteristics of subduction zone magmas and most of the samples show continental arc affinities. The geochemical signatures associated with the predominance of felsic rocks suggest a continental arc margin or an evolved accreted oceanic arc as the favored tectonic setting for the Pouso Alegre Complex. The Pouso Alegre Complex is interpreted as the southernmost and youngest recognized part of an arc complex emplaced at the southern edge of the São Francisco paleo-continent during the Paleoproterozoic. This part of the arc complex was deeply reworked by the collisional events related to the Neoproterozoic southern Brasília Orogen and its cratonic counterpart is the Mineiro Belt at the southern São Francisco craton. The Pouso Alegre Complex and the juvenile suites of the Mineiro Belt represent a major Paleoproterozoic continental crust generation event between 2.35 and 2.08Ga. This time period has not been recognized for extensive continental crust generation and preservation globally. However, it appears to be a major period of continental crust generation and preservation at the southern edge of the São Francisco paleo-continent.

Generation of continental crust in the northern part of the Borborema Province, northeastern Brazil, from Archaean to Neoproterozoic

This work deals with the origin and evolution of the magmatic rocks in the area north of the Patos Lineament in the Borborema Province (BP). This northeastern segment of NE Brazil is composed of at least six different tectonic blocks with ages varying from late-Archaean to late-Palaeoproterozoic. Archaean rocks cover ca. 5% of the region. They were emplaced over a period of 700 Ma, with at least seven events of magma generation, at 3.41, 3.36, 3.25, 3.18, 3.12, 3.03, and 2.69 Ga. The rocks are subalkaline to slightly alkaline, with affinity to I- and M-type magmas; they follow trondhjemitic or potassium calc-alkaline differentiation trends. They have epsilon Nd(t) of +1.4 to −4.2 and negative anomalies for Ta–Nb, P and Ti, consistent with a convergent tectonic setting. Both subducted oceanic crust and upper mantle (depleted or metasomatised) served as sources of the magmas. After a time lapse of about 350 m y., large-scale emplacement of Paleoproterozoic units took place. These rocks cover about 50% of the region. Their geochemistry indicates juvenile magmatism with a minor contribution from crustal sources. These rocks also exhibit potassic calc-alkaline differentiation trends, again akin to I- and M-type magmas, and show negative anomalies for Ta–Nb, Ti and P. Depleted and metasomatised mantle, resulting from interaction with adakitic or trondhjemitic melts in a subduction zone setting, is interpreted to be the main source of the magmas, predominanting over crustal recycling. U–Pb ages indicate generation of plutonic rocks at 2.24–2.22 Ga (in some places at about 2.4–2.3 Ga) and 2.13–2.11 Ga, and andesitic volcanism at 2.15 Ga. Isotopic evidence indicates juvenile magmatism (epsilon Nd(t) of +2.9 to −2.9). After a time lapse of about 200 m y. a period of within-plate magmatic activity followed, with acidic volcanism (1.79 Ga) in Orós, granitic plutonism (1.74 Ga) in the Seridó region, anorthosites (1.70 Ga) and A-type granites (1.6 Ga) in the Transverse Zone (TZ). Early Neoproterozoic volcanism at 1091 Ma, and A-type plutonism, from 920 to 775 Ma, mark the intracontinental magmatism in the TZ. In the Seridó Domain, the Late Neoproterozoic registers several events of plutonism, at 600–593, 575–560, 548–533, 528–510, 495–450 Ma. These rocks cover ca. 15% of the area, while Neoproterozoic supracrustal rocks cover ca. 30%. The most important magmatic event is that at 575 Ma, consistent with the peak of widespread transpression and synchronous high temperature metamorphism. The Neoproterozoic rocks are mostly K-enriched alkaline or transitional to calc-alkaline. Inherited Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic zircons and Nd model ages, as well as moderate to strongly negative (−21 to −9) epsilon Nd, and persistent negative anomalies for Ta–Nb, Ti and P indicate significant crustal contributions in their genesis. While a convergent setting (subduction zone) could explain the Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic units, this is not so for the Neoproterozoic rocks which mimic the geochemical and isotopic features of the older sources. In the study area, the peak of juvenile accretion (mantle derived magmas) took place in the Archaean (3.4–2.7 Ga) and Palaeproterozoic (2.4–2.11 Ga), whereas crustal recycling predominated in the Neoproterozoic.

Source-inherited compositional diversity in granite batholiths: The geochemical message of Late Paleozoic intrusive magmatism in central Calabria (southern Italy)

The Serre Batholith, in central Calabria, is a Late Paleozoic granitoid complex that makes up the middle portion, ca. 13km thick, of a continuous and nearly complete section of the continental crust. The batholith displays a large compositional variety, with granitoid rocks ranging with continuity from quartz diorite to syenogranite, a distinct group of leucotonalites also occur. The granitoids are on the whole magnesian and calcic to calc-alkalic, with only some of the more evolved rocks showing a ferroan calc-alkalic to alkali-calcic composition. Quartz diorites and tonalites are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous, while granodiorites and granites are weakly to strongly peraluminous, with two-mica porphyritic types being the only population with a genuine strongly peraluminous character. Fe*-number, MALI and ASI features highlight a strong affinity of the Serre Batholith rocks with Cordilleran granitoids, inherited from the compositions of the source rocks rather than reflecting the real tectonic environment of the magmas. Major trace element and existing Sr-Nd data are consistent with an origin of the Serre Batholith from the assembling of several batches of magmas with specific original compositions derived by fluid-absent melting of different crustal sources.Quartz diorites and tonalites originated from a metabasaltic magma source, whereas metagraywackes with various mafic and pelitic contents appear the most likely sources of weakly peraluminous granodiorites and strongly peraluminous granodiorites and granites. Biotite±amphibole granodiorites could also have been derived from mafic-intermediate metaigneous sources. Two-mica porphyritic leucogranites are the only rock types representing pure crustal melts, resulting from melting of mafic pelitic sources. The other granitoid compositions are too silica-poor and MgO+FeOt rich to represent pure melts, so they need to include other components, such as solid restitic/peritectic material entrained from the magma source.Mantle-derived magmas do not appear to have played a role in the geochemical diversity of the Serre Batholith granitoids; their inherited arc signature resulted from partial melting of crustal material of magmatic arc derivation, such as magnesian igneous rocks and sediments derived from their rapid erosion. This study suggests that post-collisional granitoid magmatism is likely not to be associated with the direct generation of new continental crust; all the granitoid rock types appear to represent recycled and reworked crustal material.

Generation and preservation of continental crust in the Grenville Orogeny

Detrital zircons from modern sediments display an episodic temporal distribution of U-Pb crystallization ages forming a series of ‘peaks’ and ‘troughs’. The peaks are interpreted to represent either periods of enhanced generation of granitic magma perhaps associated with mantle overturn and superplume events, or preferential preservation of continental crust during global collisional orogenesis. The close association of those peaks with the assembly of supercontinents implies a causal relationship between collisional orogenesis and the presence of zircon age peaks. Here these two end-member models (episodic periodicity of increased magmatism versus selective preservation during collisional orogenesis) are assessed using U-Pb, Hf, and O analysis of detrital zircons from sedimentary successions deposited during the ∼1.3–1.1 Ga accretionary, ∼1.1–0.9 Ga collisional, and < 0.9 Ga extensional collapse phases of the Grenville orogenic cycle in Labrador and Scotland. The pre-collisional, accretionary stage provides a baseline of continental crust present prior to orogenesis and is dominated by Archean and Paleoproterozoic age peaks associated with pre-1300 Ma Laurentian geology. Strata deposited during the Grenville Orogeny display similar Archean and Paleoproterozoic detrital populations along with a series of broad muted peaks from ∼1500 to 1100 Ma. However, post-collisional sedimentary successions display a dominant age peak between 1085 and 985 Ma, similar to that observed in modern North American river sediments.Zircons within the post-orogenic sedimentary successions have progressively lower ɛHf and higher δ18O values from ∼1800 to ∼1200 Ma whereupon they have higher ɛHf and δ18O within the dominant 1085–985 Ma age peak. Furthermore, the Lu-Hf isotopic profile of the Grenville-related age peak is consistent with significant assimilation and contamination by older crustal material. The timing of this dominant age peak coincides with the peak of metamorphism and magmatism associated with the Grenville Orogeny, which is a typical collisional orogenic belt. The change from broad muted age peaks in the syn-orogenic strata to a single peak in the post-orogenic sedimentary successions and in the modern river sediments implies a significant shift in provenance following continental collision. This temporal change in provenance highlights that the source(s), from which detrital zircons within syn-orogenic strata were derived, was no longer available during the later stages of the accretionary and collisional stages of the orogenic cycle. This may reflect some combination of tectonic burial, erosion, or possibly recycling into the mantle by tectonic erosion of the source(s). During continental collision, the incorporated continental crust is isolated from crustal recycling processes operative at subduction margins. This tectonic isolation combined with sedimentary recycling likely controls the presence of the isotopic signature associated with the Grenville Orogeny in the modern Mississippi and Appalachian river sediments. These results imply that zircon age peaks, which developed in conjunction with supercontinents, are the product of selective crustal preservation resulting from collisional orogenesis.

Deep subduction of continental crust in accretionary orogen: Evidence from U–Pb dating on diamond-bearing zircons from the Qinling orogen, central China

Accretionary orogenic belts are considered the most important sites for the generation of continental crust. However, it is still not very clear whether in such settings the continental crust has been significantly transported back to the mantle accompanied with its lateral growth. Continental UHP rocks, the best indicators of the recycling of the continental crust, have rarely been discovered in accretionary orogenic belts, which hinder the exploration of this essential process. The possible occurrence of early Paleozoic UHP metamorphism in the Qinling orogen provides an excellent opportunity to address this question. This article reports an integrated study of U–Pb age, trace element and mineral inclusion of zircon from an amphibolite sample in the Qinling orogen. The zircon crystals show typical metamorphic growth zoning, low Th/U ratios, flat HREE patterns, and insignificant Eu anomalies. They give a weighted mean U–Pb age of 490.4±5.8Ma. Most importantly, an in situ diamond inclusion was identified from one of the zircon crystals. Therefore, the obtained 490.4±5.8Ma age was taken as registering the peak UHP metamorphism. The discovery of in situ diamond inclusion provides important evidence for the UHP metamorphism of the Qinling orogen and indicates that the North Qinling microcontinent was subducted to mantle depths of >120km when it collided with the Erlangping arc attached to the southern margin of the North China Block. Combining with previous results, we suggested that the North Qinling UHP terrane underwent fast exhumation from >120km to ca. 30km within 10Myr intervals. As a few examples of UHP metamorphism have been discovered in some accretionary orogens, more attention needs to be paid to the occurrence of continental UHP metamorphism during accretionary orogenic process. Furthermore, evident crustal growth has been documented in the North Qinling orogen during the early Paleozoic. It is inferred that the accretionary orogenic belts may play important roles in recycling of continental crust into the mantle besides generation of continental crust.

Crustal evolution, intra-cratonic architecture and the metallogeny of an Archaean craton

Abstract The generation of the Earth's continental crust modified the composition of the mantle and provided a stable, buoyant reservoir capable of capturing mantle material and ultimately preserving ore deposits. Within the continental crust, lithospheric architecture and associated cratonic margins are a first-order control on camp-scale mineralization. Here we show that the evolving crustal architecture of the Archaean Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia, played a key role in controlling the localization of camp-scale gold, iron and nickel mineralized systems. The age and source characteristics of Archaean lithosphere are heterogeneous in both space and time and are recorded by the varying Nd isotopic signature of crustal rocks. Spatial and temporal variations in isotopic character document the evolution of an intra-cratonic architecture through time, and in doing so map transient lithospheric discontinuities where gold, nickel and iron mineral systems were concentrated. Komatiite-hosted nickel deposits cluster into camps localized within young, juvenile crust at the isotopic margin with older lithosphere; orogenic gold systems are typically localized along major structures within juvenile crust; and banded iron formation (BIF)-hosted iron deposits are localized at the edge of, and within, older lithospheric blocks. Furthermore, this work shows that crustal evolution plays an important role in the development and localization of favourable sources of nickel, gold and iron by controlling the occurrence of thick BIFs, ultramafic lavas and fertile (juvenile) crust, respectively. Fundamentally, this study demonstrates that the lithospheric architecture of a craton can be effectively imaged by isotopic techniques and used to identify regions prospective for camp-scale mineralization.

Ferropicrite-driven reworking of the Ungava craton and the genesis of Neoarchean pyroxene-granitoids

Voluminous, pyroxene-bearing, intermediate to felsic plutons were emplaced during a 20–50 million year long, spatially extensive Neoarchean igneous event that culminated in the cratonization of North Americaʼs ∼500 km-wide Ungava craton. The crystallization ages of pyroxene-bearing plutons coincide with the emplacement of numerous ca. 2.72–2.70 Ga, Fe-rich, ultramafic/mafic intrusions of the Qullinaaraaluk suite (Q-suite) that are scattered across the disparate domains of the Ungava craton. A high proportion of relatively sodic pyroxene-bearing granitoids with intermediate silica contents fall in a compositional gap between the Q-suite and pyroxene-free granitoids, suggesting that the pyroxene-granitoids may be formed by the simultaneous fractional crystallization and assimilation of older tonalitic and trondhjemitic (TT) crust by the Q-suite magmas. We estimate that pyroxene-granitoids containing ∼65 wt.% SiO2 may reflect ∼40–50 wt.% contamination of mantle-derived picritic magma by trondhjemitic melts of the pre-2.74 Ga TTG crust. The craton-wide occurrence of the Q-suite intrusions and pyroxene-granitoids suggests that underplating by ferropicritic magmas played a key role in the cratonization of the Ungava craton at the end of Archean. A major contribution of mantle-derived magmas to the petrogenesis of the ca. 2.74–2.70 Ga pyroxene-granitoids is consistent with the proposed global generation of voluminous juvenile continental crust ca. 2.7 Ga.

The generation and evolution of Archean continental crust in the Dunhuang block, northeastern Tarim craton, northwestern China

Tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite (TTG) preserved in Archean cratons can provide insights into the generation and evolution of the early continental crust. In this study, typical TTG gneisses from the Dunhuang block in the northeastern Tarim craton were studied in detail regarding their geochemistry and geochronology to constrain the generation and evolution of the Archean continental crust in this region. These TTG gneisses are characterized by high contents of SiO2 (68.3–71.6%), Al2O3 (15.3–16.9%), Na2O (4.43–4.85%), low K2O/Na2O ratios (0.20–0.37) and a very low HREE content (Yb<1ppm) and show two-stage Nd isotope model ages of ∼3.06–2.84Ga. Zircon U–Pb analyses reveal that these TTG gneisses were formed ∼2.7–2.6Ga ago, as shown by inherited magmatic zircon cores, and were later altered by Paleoproterozoic (∼2.0–1.9Ga) and early Paleozoic (∼430Ma) high-grade metamorphic events. Two samples show positive ɛHf (t) values of 1.5–5.4 for magmatic zircons with ages of ∼2.7–2.6Ga and give a two-stage Hf isotope model age of ∼2.95Ga, while one sample exhibits negative ɛHf (t) values of −3.4 to −7.2 for magmatic zircons with ages of ∼2.7–2.6Ga and gives a two-stage Hf isotope model age of ∼3.4Ga, suggesting that the Paleoarchean and Mesoarchean Eras were important periods for the generation of juvenile continental crust in the Dunhuang block. Lastly, based on analyses of previous studies, we speculate that the Tarim craton has been subjected to episodic crustal growths at ∼3.4Ga, ∼3.2Ga, ∼2.95Ga, ∼2.8Ga and ∼2.6Ga and reworking events at ∼2.7–2.6Ga and ∼2.5Ga

New evidence for ~ 4.45 Ga terrestrial crust from zircon xenocrysts in Ordovician ignimbrite in the North Qinling Orogenic Belt, China

Evidence for the earliest known terrestrial crust comes predominantly from Jack Hills in Western Australia, where hafnium isotopic results from >3.8Ga detrital zircons indicate crustal precursors as old as ~4.4–4.5Ga. We present evidence from magmatic cores in >3.9Ga xenocrystic zircons from a felsic volcanic rock in the North Qinling Orogenic Belt, China, of similar Hf crustal model ages up to 4.45Ga. These lie on the same Lu/Hf trajectory as the least disturbed Jack Hills and Apollo 14 zircons, therefore providing only the second example of the earliest known generation of continental crust on Earth. In addition, the rims of two zircon grains record later growth at 3.7Ga and, when combined with the fact that the grains are incorporated in Paleozoic volcanic rocks, imply long-lived crustal residence within the basement of the North China Craton. These results therefore establish the wider distribution and survival of the most ancient crustal material on the Earth and highlight the possibility for the further discovery of ancient crustal remnants.