General Parenting Research Articles

Parenting practices and adolescent smoking in mainland China: The mediating effect of smoking-related cognitions

This study examined the direct and indirect associations of general and smoking-specific parenting practices with Chinese adolescents' smoking behaviors. Adolescents aged 14–17 years (N = 658) and their parents were recruited from three high schools in mainland China. Adolescents completed an anonymous online survey on their smoking behaviors, perceptions of parenting behaviors, and smoking-related cognitions including attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. Parents completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire on their parenting behaviors. Results indicated that psychological control and frequency of communication about smoking were positively linked to adolescent smoking through the mediation of two smoking-related cognitions–attitude and subjective norm. Parental knowledge of adolescent activities, disapproval of adolescent smoking, and home rules were negatively linked to adolescent smoking through the mediation of attitude and subjective norm. Results suggest that parenting practices and smoking-related cognitions are critical components to be incorporated in prevention and intervention programs for adolescent smoking in China.

Parental–Adolescent Drug Use Discussions: Physiological Responses and Associated Outcomes

PurposeAlthough talking to youth about drugs is often recommended to parents, we know little about how parents actually discuss drugs with their children in the moment and how parental advice is linked to youth arousal and substance use. This study examined observed parental drug use advice and parenting behaviors during parent–adolescent drug use discussions and associations with adolescent physiological responses and substance use. MethodsFifty-eight 12–17 year olds and their primary caregivers participated in a laboratory session in which parents and youth discussed the topic of alcohol and/or drug use for 10 minutes. This discussion was videotaped and coded for drug use advice (rules against drug use, information on drug use consequences, scenarios or learning advice [discussing drug use scenarios and what the child has learned about drugs]) and general parenting behaviors (parental warmth and/or support, negative and/or critical parenting). Before, during, and after the discussions, adolescents' heart rate, blood pressure (BP), and salivary cortisol levels were assessed. ResultsParental discussion of scenarios and/or learning was associated with lower adolescent BP responses to the discussions and lower likelihood of substance use. Parental discussion of rules against drug use was associated with higher heart rate and BP responses and greater likelihood of substance use. Criticism and/or negative parenting was associated with higher cortisol responses and greater likelihood of substance use at a trend level. ConclusionsParenting characterized by greater discussion of drug use scenarios and less stating of rules against drug use and criticism may make youth feel more comfortable and be linked to lower substance use.

Associations between child emotional eating and general parenting style, feeding practices, and parent psychopathology

Emotional eating is the tendency to eat in response to negative emotions. Prior research has identified a relationship between parenting style and child emotional eating, but this has not been examined in clinical samples. Furthermore, the relationship between specific parenting practices (e.g., parent feeding practices) and child emotional eating has not yet been investigated. The current study examined relationships between child emotional eating and both general and specific parenting constructs as well as maternal symptoms of depression and binge eating among a treatment-seeking sample of overweight children. Participants included 106 mother–child dyads who attended a baseline assessment for enrollment in a behavioral intervention for overeating. Ages of children ranged from 8 to 12 years old. Mothers completed self-report measures of their child's emotional eating behavior, their own feeding practices, and symptoms of depression and binge eating. Children completed a self-report measure of their mothers’ general parenting style. A stepwise regression analysis was conducted to identify the parent variable that was most strongly related to child emotional eating, controlling for child age and gender. Emotional feeding behavior (i.e., a tendency to offer food to soothe a child's negative emotions) was the parent factor most significantly related to child emotional eating. Findings suggest that emotional feeding practices in parents may be related to emotional eating in children. Treatment with overweight children who engage in emotional eating may be improved by targeting parent feeding practices.

Parents as Moderators of Longitudinal Associations Between Sexual Peer Norms and Dutch Adolescents' Sexual Initiation and Intention

PurposeThe present study investigated how parents and peers interact in promoting or delaying Dutch adolescents' sexual initiation and intention and focused specifically on parents as moderators of peer influence. MethodsUsing a longitudinal design, two waves of online questionnaire data were collected among 900 Dutch adolescents (M = 13.8 years at T1), who were sexually inexperienced at baseline. At T1, participants reported on three types of perceived sexual peer norms: friends' sexual behaviors (descriptive norms), friends' sexual attitudes (injunctive norms), and experienced peer pressure to have sex. They also rated two parenting aspects at T1: the general quality of their relationship with parents and the frequency of sexuality-specific communication with their parents. Six months later, the participants reported on their experience with different sexual behaviors ranging from naked touching or caressing to intercourse and their intention to have sex in the next school year. ResultsRelationship quality with parents was significantly associated with both outcomes, with a higher relationship quality predicting smaller odds of sexual initiation and less intention to have sex. Two significant interaction effects showed that frequent sexual communication with parents significantly reduced the effects of sexually active friends and experienced peer pressure on adolescents' intention to have sex. ConclusionsOur findings show that different types of sexual peer norms and both general and sexuality-specific parenting play an important role in the early stages of Dutch adolescents' sexual trajectories. Moreover, parent–adolescent communication about sexuality can function as a buffer for the sex-stimulating effects of sexual peer norms.

Food parenting practices and child dietary behavior. Prospective relations and the moderating role of general parenting

Research on parenting practices has focused on individual behaviors while largely failing to consider the context of their use, i.e., general parenting. We examined the extent to which food parenting practices predict children's dietary behavior (classified as unhealthy: snacking, sugar-sweetened beverage; and healthy: water and fruit intake). Furthermore, we tested the moderating role of general parenting on this relationship. Within the KOALA Birth Cohort Study, in the Netherlands, questionnaire data were collected at 6 and 8 years (N = 1654). Correlations were computed to assess the association between food parenting practices and general parenting (i.e., nurturance, behavioral control, structure, coercive control, and overprotection). Linear regression models were fitted to assess whether food parenting practices predict dietary behavior. Instrumental and emotional feeding, and pressure to eat were found to have associations with undesirable child dietary behavior (increased unhealthy intake/decreased healthy intake), whereas associations were in the desirable direction for covert control, encouragement and restriction. Moderation analyses were performed by evaluating interactions with general parenting. The associations of encouragement and covert control with desirable child dietary behaviors were found to be stronger for children who were reared in a positive parenting context. Future research should assess the influence of contextual parenting factors moderating the relationships between food parenting and child dietary behavior as the basis for the development of more effective family-based interventions.

Maternal mind-mindedness during infancy, general parenting sensitivity and observed child feeding behavior: a longitudinal study

Maternal mind-mindedness, or the tendency to view the child as a mental agent, has been shown to predict sensitive and responsive parenting behavior. As yet the role of mind-mindedness has not been explored in the context of feeding interactions. This study evaluates the relations between maternal mind-mindedness at 6 months of infant age and subsequently observed maternal sensitivity and feeding behaviors with children at age 1 year. Maternal mind-mindedness was greater in mothers who had breast-fed compared to formula-fed. Controlling for breast-feeding, mind-mindedness at 6 months was correlated with observations of more sensitive and positive feeding behaviors at 1 year of age. Mind-mindedness was also associated with greater general maternal sensitivity in play and this general parenting sensitivity mediated the effect of mind-mindedness on more sensitive and positive feeding behaviors. Interventions to promote maternal tendency to consider their child’s mental states may encourage more adaptive parental feeding behaviors.

Parent and family stress factors predict health‐related quality in pediatric patients with new‐onset epilepsy

To examine the influence of parent and family general and epilepsy-related stress on longitudinal generic and epilepsy-specific health-related quality of life (HRQOL) for children with new-onset epilepsy, while controlling for demographic characteristics, disease factors, and antiepileptic drug (AED) adherence. This prospective, longitudinal study included 124 children with new-onset epilepsy (mean age 7.2 years, standard deviation [SD] 2.9 years). Parents completed questionnaires on parenting stress, perceived stigma, fears and concerns, and HRQOL at 1, 13, and 25 months after diagnosis. Adherence to AEDs was assessed using electronic monitors. A medical chart review was conducted at each visit to obtain seizure and side effect data. Higher levels of general and epilepsy-specific parent and family stress, fears and concerns, and perceived stigma negatively affected child generic and epilepsy-specific HRQOL, above and beyond disease and demographic factors. General parenting and family stress affected child generic and epilepsy-specific HRQOL more in the first year of disease management than at 2 years after diagnosis. Higher fears and concerns predicted higher epilepsy-specific HRQOL at 13 months postdiagnosis, whereas 2 years postdiagnosis, higher fears and concerns predicted lower epilepsy-specific HRQOL. Several demographic (i.e., age) and disease-related variables (i.e., side effects and AED adherence) influenced child generic and epilepsy-specific HRQOL. Although some findings were consistent across generic and epilepsy-specific HRQOL measures, others were unique. Modifiable parent factors (i.e., general and disease-specific parent and family stress, perceived stigma) impact HRQOL for children with new-onset epilepsy differently over the first 2 years postdiagnosis. Psychosocial interventions to improve HRQOL within the first year postdiagnosis should address parenting and family stress, overall coping, and anticipatory guidance on managing epilepsy. Interventions targeting adherence, perceived stigma, and fears and concerns could improve HRQOL. Promoting parent management of stress, fears/concerns, and perceived stigma may lead to improved child HRQOL outcomes. A PowerPoint slide summarizing this article is available for download in the Supporting Information section here.

¿Qué hacemos en el barrio? Descripción de las actividades comunitarias de promoción de la salud en atención primaria: Proyecto frAC

ObjectiveTo describe the health-promoting community activities developed in primary health care and compare types of activities and how they are performed among autonomous regions. MethodsA descriptive multicenter study was carried out in primary care in 5 Spanish regions. We included community activities consisting of non-sporadic activities, carried out in the previous year, with the participation of the primary care team, and the active participation of the community or as a cross-sector activity. The persons responsible for each of the 194 teams were asked if the team participated in community activities and, if so, a questionnaire was completed by the person responsible for each activity. The variables consisted of the topic addressed, the target population, the professionals involved, the time and scope of implementation, evaluation, theoretical perspectives, network registration, the involvement of the community and other agents, and evaluation of this involvement. A descriptive analysis was performed, stratified by region. ResultsWe identified 183 community activities in 104 teams. Although there was wide variability among regions, most activities were related to general health, nutrition and emotional-sexual health and targeted the general population, children or parents and were carried out in educational or health centers. Participating professionals had a median of 4 years of experience and a median of 2.8 professionals were involved in each activity. A total of 72.5% of the activities were performed during working hours, 75% were evaluated, and 70% were supported by theoretical and methodological perspectives. Non-health sectors were involved in 65%, local government in 60%, and nongovernmental organizations in 58.5%. Nurses were involved in 85.8% of the activities, physicians in 38.5%, and social workers in 35%. Substantial variability was detected among regions. DiscussionWide variability was found in the types of activities and their application among the community activities developed by primary care, as well as in institutional recognition and community involvement in the development and evaluation of these activities.

I worry when […] insights into dual diagnosis from those who treat mothers misusing alcohol

Purpose – Alcohol misuse and mental health problems in parents are both known to contribute to impaired outcomes in children, although little is known about the specific parenting behaviours that might be affected. Mental health problems in parents who misuse alcohol may impact parenting in specific ways, and these may be different for mothers and for fathers. The purpose of this paper is to make a preliminary investigation of alcohol misuse and mental health problems in mothers, and explore ways in which these might affect their parenting. Design/methodology/approach – Semi-structured interviews were carried out with professionals involved in services for mothers who misuse alcohol, including those working in addiction psychiatry, in primary care, and in the provision of parenting services. These interviews were then examined using thematic analysis. Findings – Themes emerged including specific mental health problems (depression, anxiety and personality disorders), and related issues, such as self-medication. Particularly relevant for mothers were post-natal depression, the effect on maternal alcohol misuse and mental health when children are removed, the role of domestic violence, and the importance for identification of home visits by services. Different types of alcohol misuse were linked to different mental states and different parenting behaviours in parents. Findings in the general parenting and substance misuse literature were confirmed, and a new addition was that expressed emotion may play a role in families where mothers misuse alcohol. Originality/value – The findings increased the understanding of the relationships between maternal alcohol misuse, mental health issues and parenting, raising several new points for consideration.

Twenty-Five Years Later: How is Technology Used in the Education of Students with Disabilities? Results of a Statewide Study

This study provides a snapshot of factors associated with assistive technology (AT) use in one large Midwestern state. Conducted about 25 years after the passage of the original Technology Related Assistance Act, the study presents results from a survey of 1,143 Michigan educators. Results of the study show that respondents use technology frequently in their personal and professional lives, but less so during the instruction of students with disabilities. AT is viewed positively and educators believe they are knowledgeable about some aspects of technology use. However, in other areas, educators provide low ratings of their knowledge of specific AT uses and functions, and have mixed impressions of the support they receive for technology use. Scores on measures of self-reported knowledge and perceived support vary significantly among different categories of respondents and are only moderate for special educators and low for general educators. Nevertheless, educators express interest in further professional development about AT. The need for additional professional development, along with better access to technology and more funding, are perceived as top barriers to more widespread AT use. Other findings include a lack of knowledge about how technology is used by students in and out of school and the low rate of participation of general educators, students, and parents in AT decisions. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for reforming practices related to technology implementation, professional development, and research.

How Do Mothers Help Their Children Sleep at Night? Night-waking Strategy Use Among Mothers of Preschool-aged Children

Night-waking is common among preschool-aged children. Little is known about night-time parenting among parents of preschool-aged children. To explore night-waking strategy use in a community sample, 203 mothers (M age = 32 years, SD = 5.1; children's M age = 3.4 years, SD = 1.0) completed the Night-waking Strategy Scale (NSS) and measures of general parenting, agreement with night-waking strategies, and children's sleep. Children were grouped by age (2-, 3-, and 4-to-5-year-olds). Mothers endorsed using routines most frequently, followed by active comforting and rewards; limit-setting and punishment were used less often. NSS punishment and routines were significantly associated with parenting (e.g. laxness was correlated with NSS routines, rs = −.35 to .47, p < .001). Night-waking strategy use was correlated with agreement with those strategies (e.g. active comforting was correlated with agreement with active comforting rs = .35 to .52, p < .001). Active comforting was correlated with the frequency of children's night-waking for 2- and 3-year-olds (rs = .35 and .38, respectively, p < .01). Mothers of preschool-aged children in the community engage in a range of parenting strategies to manage children's night-waking. These strategies are largely consistent with general parenting and agreement with night-waking strategy use. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Associations of general parenting and parent-child relationship with pediatric obesity: a meta-analysis.

The objective of the meta-analysis is to integrate available results on associations of general parenting (not specific to feeding and activity promotion) and parent-child relations with child weight status, eating, and physical activity. Searching in electronic databases and cross-referencing identified 156 empirical studies. Random-effects meta-analysis was computed. A positive parent-child relationship and higher levels of parental responsiveness were associated with lower weight, healthier eating, and more physical activity of the child. Parental demandingness, overprotection, psychological control, inconsistency, and parenting styles showed associations with some of the assessed outcome variables. Most effect sizes were small and varied by study characteristics. The small effects do not support making general parenting styles, parental demandingness, responsiveness, and the quality of the parent-child relationship a main target of preventing and treating obesity. Reducing parental inconsistency may be a better target if available results are replicated in future studies.

Combining ability and heritability of some tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) cultivars

General and specific combining ability (GCA and SCA) were estimated using five tomato cultivars and their F1 hybrids, using diallel cross system without reciprocals. Heritability percentages in narrow sense were, also, calculated for the different studied characters of tomato. The obtained results indicated, generally, that a particular cultivar or hybrid cannot be used to evaluate all studied characters with equal efficiency. However, the best general combiner parent which appeared to have the significant highest positive values of GCA was found to be the cultivar Super Marmand for the characters; plant height, number of flowers per clusters, ascorbic acid content and total soluble solids; the cultivar Edkawy for number of primary branches, number of locules per fruit and fruit weight; the parental cultivar Peto-86 for number of fruits per plants, fruit shape index and pericarp thickness; and Super Strain-B for fruit firmness and total fruits yield per plant. The obtained results illustrated, also, that the best hybrid combinations that reflected the highest positive values of SCA; which means that the parents of this particular cross can combine well to produce a hybrid with high general performances were found to be those of the F1 hybrids Peto-86 × Edkawy for plant height and total soluble solids; CastelRock × Peto-86 for fruit shape index, fruit weight and total fruits yield per plant; Super Marmand × CastelRock for number of flowers per cluster and number of fruits per plant; Super Strain-B × Super Marmand for ascorbic acid and T.S.S.%; and Super Strain-B × Peto-86 for fruit firmness. Narrow sense heritability estimates were found to be in the range from −37.33% (not different from zero) for the number of flowers per cluster up to 86.69% for fruit firmness characters.

Motivations for Involvement: A Preliminary Investigation of Parents of Students with Disabilities

Parents of students in special education have greater barriers to parental involvement than parents of students in general education. Little is known, however, about the factors that facilitate or impede involvement practices for this group. This preliminary study investigated the extent to which the motivational factors from Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler’s (2005) Model of Parent Involvement (i.e., Parent Role Activity Beliefs, Parent Efficacy, General School Invitations, Specific Teacher Invitation, Specific Child Invitations, Perceived Knowledge and Skills, and Perceived Time and Energy) predicted the Home-Based, School-Based, and Special Education Involvement of 137 parents of elementary school students in special education from two suburban school districts in upstate New York. Family structure, race/ethnicity, and family socioeconomic status (SES) were also examined. Parents in the current study reported being more involved in both home and school-based activities when children specifically requested their involvement. School-Based Involvement was also predicted by parents’ perceptions of their time and energy and their level of responsibility in supporting their child’s education, as well as their reported level of education (an indication of SES). An interesting and counterintuitive inverse relationship was found between general school invitations and parents’ Home-Based Involvement. Lastly, the only significant predictor for Special Education Involvement was specific teacher invitations. These findings are discussed and suggestions are made for how to increase involvement for this specific group of parents.

Preliminary results from a family-based HIV prevention intervention for South African youth.

Approximately 5.6 million South Africans are living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; UNAIDS, 2010). Prevalence among Black adolescents and young adults is particularly alarming. This pilot study of an HIV preventive intervention targeting South African youth contributes to the growing body of research on culturally competent family-based interventions. A total of 99 parent-child dyads were enrolled in an experimental repeated measures study, using a wait-list control group. Our 6-session intervention targeted general parenting (relationship quality, parental monitoring, and involvement), gender roles, and parent-youth communication about sex (content and quality). Parents and youth were assessed at baseline, postintervention, and 6-month follow-up. Eligibility included being the primary female caregiver of a 10- to 14-year-old child with whom they spent at least 4 nights a week and being able to participate in English or Xhosa. Effect sizes with this small sample met or exceeded those of other family-based HIV interventions for youth in the United States and South Africa (e.g., Bell et al., 2008; Forehand et al., 2007). Parents' reports at postintervention indicated larger effect sizes for general parenting than youths' reports indicated. Parents' reports showed medium to large effects for all sex communication outcomes at postintervention and the 6-month follow-up. Youth reports demonstrated small to medium effects for most communication variables and these effects lasted through the 6-month follow-up period. Intergenerational social networks (e.g., families) hold promise for HIV prevention among South African youth. A full efficacy trial with longer-term follow-up and attention to maintenance of effects is warranted.

Development of the Comprehensive General Parenting Questionnaire for caregivers of 5-13 year olds

BackgroundDespite the large number of parenting questionnaires, considerable disagreement exists about how to best assess parenting. Most of the instruments only assess limited aspects of parenting. To overcome this shortcoming, the “Comprehensive General Parenting Questionnaire” (CGPQ) was systematically developed. Such a measure is frequently requested in the area of childhood overweight.MethodsFirst, an item bank of existing parenting measures was created assessing five key parenting constructs that have been identified across multiple theoretical approaches to parenting (Nurturance, Overprotection, Coercive control, Behavioral control, and Structure). Caregivers of 5- to 13-year-olds were asked to complete the online survey in the Netherlands (N = 821), Belgium (N = 435) and the United States (N = 241). In addition, a questionnaire regarding personality characteristics (“Big Five”) of the caregiver was administered and parents were asked to report about their child’s height and weight. Factor analyses and Item-Response Modeling (IRM) techniques were used to assess the underlying parenting constructs and for item reduction. Correlation analyses were performed to assess the relations between general parenting and personality of the caregivers, adjusting for socio-economic status (SES) indicators, to establish criterion validity. Multivariate linear regressions were performed to examine the associations of SES indicators and parenting with child BMI z-scores. Additionally, we assessed whether scores on the parenting constructs and child BMI z-scores differed depending on SES indicators.ResultsThe reduced questionnaire (62 items) revealed acceptable fit of our parenting model and acceptable IRM item fit statistics. Caregiver personality was related as hypothesized with the GCPQ parenting constructs. While correcting for SES, overprotection was positively related to child BMI. The negative relationship between structure and BMI was borderline significant. Parents with a high level of education were less likely to use overly forms of controlling parenting (i.e., coercive control and overprotection) and more likely to have children with lower BMI. Based on several author review meetings and cognitive interviews the questionnaire was further modified to an 85-item questionnaire.ConclusionsThe GCPQ may facilitate research exploring how parenting influences children’s weight-related behaviors. The contextual influence of general parenting is likely to be more profound than its direct relationship with weight status.

Vocational Skills Development for Youths in the Informal Sector of the Economy in Africa

It is generally recognised that the development of relevant skills is an important instrument for improving productivity and working conditions, and the promotion of decent work in the informal economy, which represents the major employer in Africa. The increasing recognition that higher technical and vocational skills are crucial in enhancing competitiveness and contributing to social inclusion, decent employment, and poverty reduction has been a strong incentive for reform. African countries are therefore working towards improving the quality and skills levels of their labour forces. This is being facilitated through the Technical and Vocational Training Institutes. Education and skills can open doors to economically and socially rewarding jobs and can help the development of small informal-sector businesses, allow the re-insertion of displaced workers and support the transition from school to work for school drop-outs and graduates. Ultimately, developing job-related competencies among the poor, the youth and the vulnerable is recognised as crucial to progress in economic development and reducing poverty. The challenge is now to scale-up on the basis of successful pilot programmes. The number of enterprises capable of offering work-place training opportunities is limited, while many training institutions have poor delivery capacity and commonly lack funding. In turn, training programmes do not produce skilled graduates because training is of poor quality and the equipment obsolete. Many youths cannot access formal TVET, and few countries have training policies which emphasise skills development in the informal sector. Other obstacles include the low prestige of formal TVET in the eyes of the general public and parents who consider it to be an option suitable only for pupils who perform poorly in general education. This paper aims at providing a picture of technical and vocational skills development in African countries, exploring challenges and bottlenecks, highlighting good practices, and identifying priorities for further research. Specifically, the objectives will be to (a) update knowledge about the status of technical - vocational education and training in the African region, (b) explore issues and recent developments, and (c) distil a set of lessons and policy messages to guide skills development in the region. The focus of the analysis will be on the economics of skills development. Provision of financing of TVET will be examined through the lens of economic efficiency, balanced with attention to social equity.

Saving Children from a Life of Crime: the Benefits Greatly Outweigh the Costs!

SummaryThis article reviews some of the most effective programmes for saving children from a life of crime, and also presents the results of cost-benefit analyses of some of these programmes. The best programmes include general parent education in home visiting programmes, parent management training, pre-school intellectual enrichment programmes, child skills training, Functional Family Therapy, Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care and Multisystemic Therapy. Communities That Care is a useful overarching programme. Most of these programmes have been shown to reduce crime and save money. The time is ripe to establish national agencies in all countries which will advance knowledge about early risk factors (from longitudinal studies) and about effective developmental interventions (from randomized experiments and cost-benefit analyses).

Hassle Free Mealtimes Triple P: A randomised controlled trial of a brief parenting group for childhood mealtime difficulties

Mealtime difficulties are common in typically developing young children. Easily accessible, wide-reaching, early intervention is needed to meet demand for assistance, and prevent the development of more serious feeding and psychosocial problems. Behavioural parent training is an efficacious intervention for childhood mealtime problems, however, existing programmes are long, intensive, and costly. The current study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of a brief parenting discussion group for young children's mealtime difficulties. Eighty-six parents of 2- to 5-year-old children with mealtime difficulties participated in a randomised controlled trial of Hassle Free Mealtimes Triple P (HFMTP; Morawska & Sanders, 2012), a 2-h discussion group on positive parenting strategies specific to the mealtime context. Results of parent-report measures showed that after intervention, there were significant improvements with large effect sizes in children's mealtime behaviour, parents' mealtime practices and cognitions, and both mealtime and general parenting confidence, compared to a waitlist control group. Parents also reported high satisfaction with the programme and effects were maintained at 6-month follow-up. These results support the efficacy of a brief parenting discussion group for childhood mealtime difficulties. This low intensity format of intervention has the potential to meet the high demand for assistance with young children's mealtime difficulties.

Food insecurity and obesity in Victoria

relationship and thus be a risk factor for inappropriate feeding practices that may increase the risk of childhood overweight. The aim of this study was to examine the longitudinal relationships between self-reported maternal postnatal depressive symptoms at child age 4 months and feeding practices at child age 2 years in a community sample of mothers. Methods: Participants were Australian first-time mothers allocated to the control group of the NOURISH RCT when infants were 4 months old (277/346 allocated at baseline provided at least some data at follow up when children were 2 years old; 51% girls). The relationship between Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) score (child age 4 months) and child feeding practices (child age 2 years) measured using validated tools was tested using hierarchical linear regression analysis in order to adjust for maternal and child characteristics. Results: Complete data for planned regression analyses were available for 211 participants. Higher EPDS was associated with less responsive feeding practices at child age 2 years: specifically, greater pressure to eat (ˇ = 0.18, p = 0.01), restriction (ˇ = 0.14, p = 0.05), instrumental feeding (ˇ = 0.14, p = 0.04), and emotional feeding (ˇ = 0.15, p = 0.03) practices. Conclusions: The present study provides evidence for the proposed link between maternal postnatal depressive symptoms and lower responsiveness in child feeding, even in a healthy sample of mothers. These findings emphasise the importance of providing support to mothers experiencing sub-clinical levels of depressive symptomatology in the early postnatal period in order to promote responsiveness in both general parenting and feeding contexts.