Gender-based Stereotypes Research Articles

Frequency of Television Watching and Gender Stereotypes in Children and Adolescents A Review in the Context of Cultivation Theory

Widespread use of television has brought with it the examination of the effect of exposure to TV content on its viewers. One of the most remarkable approaches put forward in this context is the Cultivation Theory developed by Gerbner (1969). The theory, which focuses on the impact of TV viewing on individuals perceptions of reality, assumes that as the frequency of exposure to messages presented in TV increases, individuals’ perceptions of the real world are shaped according to these messages. The development of gender stereotypes and beliefs in gender equality in children and adolescents may also be fed by the “cultivation” function of TV, which is widely used by them also. The aim of this study is to systematically review the studies focuses on the relationship between frequency of watching TV and children’s or adolescents’ gender-based stereotypes in the context of Cultivation Theory. A total of 23 studies conducted between 1960 and 2020 were reviewed in this context and it was determined that both children and adolescents had more traditional beliefs and attitudes about gender roles with the increase in the frequency of watching TV. Findings were discussed in the light of the relevant literature. Keywords Cultivation Theory, gender roles, watching tv, children, adolescents

Gender-based differential item functioning in the Cannabis-Associated Problems Questionnaire: A replication and extension

BackgroundGender bias in measures of cannabis problems may differentially affect how men and women endorse items. This gender invariance might mask, exaggerate, or otherwise obscure true distinctions in experiences of cannabis consequences. MethodsThe Cannabis-Associated Problems Questionnaire (CAPQ), a measure of interpersonal deficits, occupational impairment, psychological issues, and physical side effects related to cannabis use, contained items with gender-based differential item functioning (DIF) in previous work—a finding we aim to replicate and extend (Lavender, Looby, & Earleywine, 2008). ResultsIn a sample of 4053 cannabis users, gender differences were apparent in global scores on the CAPQ. A DIF analysis revealed two gender-biased items, including one identified previously. Removal of these items did not significantly alter the scale’s relation to cannabis use. Gender differences on the CAPQ persisted after removal of the two problematic items, indicating true gender differences still exist in men and women’s experiences of cannabis-related consequences. Gender appeared to significantly contribute to scores on the full CAPQ and the short-form of the CAPQ with biased item removed, even after controlling for indices of cannabis use. ConclusionsThese findings suggest that the CAPQ evidences less gender bias than previously thought, perhaps due to diminishing gender-based stereotypes. Future work might opt to use the short form of the CAPQ to minimize gender-based DIF. In addition, potential biases in measures of substance use problems deserve more attention.

Food for Boys and Food for Girls: Do Preschool Children Hold Gender Stereotypes about Food?

Family meals are occasions for socializing children to gender roles and the symbolic meaning of food and eating. One of the relevant symbolic meaning of food concerns its gender connotation: Meat, especially red meat, is considered the quintessential male food, whereas fruit, vegetables, dairy, desserts, and fish are considered typical female food. These food-gender associations have been mainly investigated in adulthood; only a few studies involved children. The present study examined preschool children’s explicit and implicit food-gender stereotypes, their stereotypical food likings, and mothers’ influence in the transmission of such stereotypes. A group of 137 Italian preschool children (4–6 years-old) performed two tasks: (a) an Implicit Association Test (IAT) measuring the association between meat and vegetable dishes and male and female faces and (b) a “waiter’s game” in which they assigned images of different foods to men, women, boys, and girls depicted on cards. Moreover, they were asked to indicated their likings for the food employed in the waiter’s game. Mothers were given a questionnaire assessing gender-based stereotypes about food and eating habits. The results showed that boys already associated meat with men and vegetables with women at the implicit level and expressed a preference for masculine foods. Such stereotyping did not emerge at the implicit level for girls or at an explicit level for either girls or boys. Moreover, mothers’ attitudes and behaviors predicted, at least in part, their children’s food-gender explicit stereotypes but not children’s implicit stereotypes. Stereotyped food likings were predicted by children’s explicit stereotypes.

Boys do not cry: the negative effects of brand masculinity on brand emotions

Building on the literature on gender role theory and brand gender, this research examines how gender-based stereotypes regarding emotional behaviors can influence consumers’ response to brand emotions. Three experimental studies demonstrate that consumers hold the same gender-based expectations of brands as they do with human emotions. In particular, they show that masculine brands can suffer from the stereotype that masculinity is typically associated with emotional control. Consumers will judge the emotional expression of a masculine brand less appropriate, which will negatively affect the perceived sincerity of the brand. Downstream negative consequences of brand masculinity include message attitude, brand attitude, and intentions to recommend the brand. Evidence of this effect is provided for emotions that are typically associated with femininity (happiness and sadness) and masculinity (anger and pride).

Do Gender Cues from Images Supersede Partisan Cues Conveyed via Text? Eye Movements Reveal Political Stereotyping in Multimodal Information Environments

ABSTRACT An important feature of the information environment is its multimodal nature. In politics, people encounter representations of political candidates that combine images and text. Among the most prominent pieces of information people encounter are a candidate’s gender, obtained from images of the candidate’s face, and the candidate’s partisan identification, often represented as text. This feature of the environment is important given previous work showing that individuals infer gender categories from faces rapidly and effortlessly. In this study (N = 113), we use eye movements to determine how individuals assign stereotypical policy positions to candidates in an environment in which photos of candidates’ faces are paired with labels of their partisan IDs. We find that politically-knowledgeable individuals are more likely to use partisan- than gender-based stereotypes. In contrast, political novices did not prioritize one type of stereotype over the other. Our findings have implications for understanding how individuals make political evaluations in multimodal settings and show the advantages of measuring eye movements when studying stereotyping in multimodal environments.

A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Gender-Based Food Stereotypes and Consumption Intentions among Millennial Consumers

This study aims to investigate (1) whether the perception of gender-based food stereotypes exits among millennial consumers of two different cultures and (2) the impact of gender and culture on the relationship between gender-based food stereotypes and food consumption intentions. The data was collected from college students in Turkey and the U.S. The results show that respondents perceive certain foods as masculine and feminine, but the degree of masculinity or femininity and food consumption intentions differs by gender and country. The findings of this research can help global marketers to design strategies for food products.

Counterstereotyping can change children’s thinking about boys’ and girls’ toy preferences

Children think that peers prefer gender-stereotypical toys over gender-counterstereotypical toys. These beliefs can limit children’s exploration of gender-counterstereotypical behaviors and prevent the development of broad skills and interests. The current research tested interventions to combat gender-based stereotyping about toys among children aged 4 to 7 years (N = 373). Across four experiments featuring seven different intervention versions, participants saw videos where a teacher provided counterstereotypical messages about toy preferences (e.g., “boys like dolls,” “girls like trucks”). The phrasing of the messages (e.g., generic vs. demonstrative) and accompanying photographs (e.g., images of many children vs. one child) varied across experiments. In all intervention conditions, participants made more counterstereotypical (and fewer stereotypical) predictions about peers’ toy preferences after viewing intervention videos; differences in the phrasing of the intervention message (e.g., “boys like dolls” vs. “this kid likes dolls”) had little effect on participants’ predictions. In Experiment 4, an intervention condition containing generic phrasing and gender noun labels (e.g., “boys like dolls”) changed children’s selection of toys for peers. This research provides promise for counterstereotyping as an impactful and easily implementable intervention strategy.

Procedural injustice, police legitimacy, and officer gender: A vignette-based test of the invariance thesis.

Role congruity theory suggests that gender-based stereotypes can result in female police officers paying a higher price (i.e., viewed as less legitimate) relative to male officers for mistreating people. The invariance thesis posits that the effect of (un)fair treatment by legal authorities on legal attitudes and beliefs is stable across situations, time, and space. This study tested the invariance thesis by assessing whether the effect of procedural injustice on police legitimacy differed across officer gender. A factorial vignette survey that consisted of two types of citizen-initiated police encounters was administered to a university-based sample (N = 525). The results showed that the effect of procedural injustice had a powerful and significant influence on participants' legitimacy perceptions. These effects were consistent regardless of whether the treatment was doled out by a male or a female police officer. The findings provide support for the invariance thesis.

The Sociology of Gaslighting

Gaslighting—a type of psychological abuse aimed at making victims seem or feel “crazy,” creating a “surreal” interpersonal environment—has captured public attention. Despite the popularity of the term, sociologists have ignored gaslighting, leaving it to be theorized by psychologists. However, this article argues that gaslighting is primarily a sociological rather than a psychological phenomenon. Gaslighting should be understood as rooted in social inequalities, including gender, and executed in power-laden intimate relationships. The theory developed here argues that gaslighting is consequential when perpetrators mobilize gender-based stereotypes and structural and institutional inequalities against victims to manipulate their realities. Using domestic violence as a strategic case study to identify the mechanisms via which gaslighting operates, I reveal how abusers mobilize gendered stereotypes; structural vulnerabilities related to race, nationality, and sexuality; and institutional inequalities against victims to erode their realities. These tactics are gendered in that they rely on the association of femininity with irrationality. Gaslighting offers an opportunity for sociologists to theorize under-recognized, gendered forms of power and their mobilization in interpersonal relationships.

Letter: Congress of Neurological Surgeons Female International Think Tank Report: Much Progress, Still Work to Be Done.

Letter: Congress of Neurological Surgeons Female International Think Tank Report: Much Progress, Still Work to Be Done.

刻板印象与男性气质：性别视角下的男护士 (Stereotype and Masculinity: A Gender Perspective to Review the Male Nurse)

Chinese Abstract: 随着社会和护理行业的发展，男护士逐渐活跃在这个曾经被视作只有女性才会从事的行业之中。本文从社会学和性别研究的理论视角出发，在对两家医院两个月的参与式观察与26位相关人士的深度访谈后，通过对与男护士相关的最明显的一优一缺点——“力气大”与“不细心”进行了细致的梳理与批判，对目前男护士的学术研究和现实管理中存在的过分偏重于生物性别解释与性别本质主义的问题进行了再讨论。本文发现，这种基于生物性别的刻板印象似的优缺点虽然突出了男护士在特殊科室的重要作用，但无益于其护士身份自我认同的稳固和发展，亦使得其陷入了更深的自我与外界规训之中，并对改善护理质量的要求可能会产生一定的误导。本文也会以男护士为主体，分析他们是如何通过对信息的裁剪和展演对自我身份与其男性气质进行重新的建构与展示的。 English Abstract: With the development of the society and the nursing profession, male nurses are gradually becoming active in the profession that was once considered to be only women. From the theoretical perspective of sociology and gender studies, this paper, after two months of participatory observations of two hospitals and in-depth interviews with 26 relevant individuals, thoroughly examine the most stereotypical advantages and disadvantages associated with male nurses - The great strength and careful enough. This paper finds that the advantages and disadvantages of this kind of gender-based stereotypes highlight the important role of male nurses in special departments, but they are not conducive to the stability and development of their identity as a nurse, which also makes them fall into a deeper self-doubt and discipline. This article also examines how male nurses reconstruct and display their identity and masculinity through the strategically display/hide information.

“I Always Watched Eyewitness News Just to See Your Beautiful Smile”: Ethical Implications of U.S. Women TV Anchors’ Personal Branding on Social Media

ABSTRACTWomen television journalists have long faced criticism and harassment regarding their appearance. The normalization of social media engagement in newsrooms, where journalists are expected to interact with their audience, creates new challenges for women journalists by providing forums for public judgment that was once a private matter. Research suggests that receiving harassing or abusive comments from audience members online can cause harm to the health, wellbeing, and careers of women television journalists. The public goods that are generated through such interaction are opaque at best. This essay focuses on three intersecting areas of concern pertaining to this issue: (1) The tension between journalistic standards and the requirements to engage in personal branding through social media; (2) The practice of requiring journalists to take their personal branding online, which exposes women journalists, in particular, to potentially harmful statements; and (3) The perpetuation of gender-based stereotypes and inequalities in television journalism, which we argue constitutes a social harm. We discuss these issues with reference to the existing empirical literature and an illustrative qualitative analysis of audience comments left on women news anchors’ Facebook pages. We also offer recommendations for news organizations, grounded in their duties to their workforces.

Historical Books: Joshua–2 Kings

Historical BooksJoshua–2 Kings Christopher T. Begg and Thomas Hieke 1203. [Joshua–Judges] Siegbert Ricker, "The Conquest and Borders of the Land in the Books of Joshua and Judges," The Earth and the Land, 121-54 [see #1634]. The theological message of the Books of Joshua and Judges concerning the land can be synthesized in terms of the "in the midst" formula, taken in conjunction with the notion of "rest" and the tension between completeness and incompleteness of the conquest. The various particular border descriptions in the two books reflect three distinct views of the [End Page 388] land, i.e., the promised land, Canaan, and the conquered land, of which only the third evidences a certain flexibility regarding the extent of the conquest. [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] 1204. [Joshua] Thomas B. Dozeman, "The Book of Joshua in Recent Research," Currents in Biblical Research 15 (3, 2017) 270-88. Research on the Book of Joshua is developing significantly in a variety of areas. D.'s review of this research, with a concentration on publications of the last decade, is organized under six headings: (1) textual criticism; (2) composition and literary context; (3) history, archaeology, and geography; (4) violence, genocide and conquest; (5) literary and ideological studies; and (6) reception history. The article, which serves as an update to the research report published by L. Greenspoon in Currents in Biblical Research 3 (2005) 229-61, concludes with brief comments on recent commentaries and collected studies on the Book of Joshua. [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] 1205. [Joshua] Siegbert Riecker, "Die Botschaft des Buches Josua. Eine theologisch- strukurelle Untersuchung," BeTh 2 (2018) 159-86. The theological message of the Book of Joshua can be elucidated by four chiastically arranged key words: (A) "cross"—(B) "take"—Bʹ "divide"—and Aʹ "serve." These key words are derived by R. from the structure of the book, and presumably reflect the author's intention. If one arranges additional subordinate themes on the basis of the book's theological structure, one arrives at a coherent message for the book as a whole: (A) the presence of Yhwh and the obedience of the people are the precondition for victory and peace; (B) the taking of the land is primarily Yhwh's task—Israel is simply God's instrument in doing this; (Bʹ) after the fulfillment of Yhwh's promises regarding the land, Israel's remaining task is to settle down in its allotted territories, united as one people under one God; and (Aʹ) to serve this God in a way that is acceptable to him entails serving him alone in holy and faithful fashion. [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] 1206. [Joshua] Stephen C. Russell, "The Legal Background of the Theme of Land in the Book of Joshua," HS 59 (2018) 111-28. Drawing on the anthropological distinction between administrative and productive rights, R. shows how the Book of Joshua's account of the distribution of the land rests on the assumption of collective tribal rights, with the leadership of the community as a whole allocating the land in conformity with principles found elsewhere in ANE legal tradition. The designation of cities of refuge and levitical cities in Joshua 20–21 provides further illustration of this perspective.—F.E.G. 1207. [Judges 4–5] David J. Zucker and Moshe Reiss, "Subverting Sexuality: Manly Women; Womenly Men in Judges 4–5," BTB 45 (2015) 32-37. Judges 4–5 features a narrative account, followed by a poetic depiction, of a 12th cent. b.c.e. battle and its aftermath. The conflict described is between the forces of Israel and those of a Canaanite commander. In the two chapters traditional gender roles are overturned and subverted: women are manly and men are womanly. This upending of gender-based stereotypes is integral to the message of the text as we have it. [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] [End Page 389] 1208. [Judges 13–16] Helen Paynter, "'Revenge for My Two Eyes': Talion and Mimesis in the Samson Narrative," BibInt 26 (2018) 133-57. The Samson narrative is notable...

Gendered Failures in Extrinsic Emotional Regulation; Or, Why Telling a Woman to “Relax” or a Young Boy to “Stop Crying Like a Girl” Is Not a Good Idea

I argue that gendered stereotypes, gendered emotions and attitudes, and display rules can influence extrinsic regulation stages, making failure points likely to occur in gendered-context and for reasons that the emotion regulation literature has not given adequate attention to. As a result, I argue for ‘feminist emotional intelligence’ as a way to help escape these failures. Feminist emotional intelligence, on my view, is a nonideal ability-based approach that equips a person to effectively reason about emotions through an intersectional lens and use emotions to inform how we think and react to the world. This includes being attuned to the ways in which the world and our emotional lives are structured by and favors men. It stresses the need to be attuned to, as well as resist and challenge gender-based stereotypes and attitudes around emotions, paying close attention to the ways those stereotypes, norms, and attitudes differ across race, class, ethnicity, et cetera.

Breaking the Glass Ceiling Philosophy and Reality: A Study of Gender Progress and Career Development in the Corporate World

With the evolving nature of the business world, it has become a modern necessity to have a diverse workforce. As such, human resources professionals and managers must be prepared for the redesign of their organizations to be more inclusive throughout their formal hierarchies. Although the overall attitudes have become generally more feminist, the unfortunate reality is that women continue to face internal and external barriers which act as a ceiling to their career development and advancement. Rather than viewing the paucity of women in management positions as a problem because of public disdain towards gender disparities within the workplace, this paper emphasizes that organizations should view this as an opportunity to gain a competitive advantage, given that having more women in leadership positions is correlated to improved organizational performance. The main argument of this research is that gender diversity can lead to better outcomes for an organization; in addition to this, research demonstrates that the inclusion of more women within management positions may also encourage a transformational leadership style, which could potentially lead to sustainable growth for a company. Throughout this paper, using the methodology of reviewing recently published literature, this paper demonstrates the fact that the glass ceiling is detrimental to the economic development of both women and the companies as institutional barriers seem to persistently block them from equitable advancement opportunities. Using published data and expert analysis, we provide suggestions and recommendations for the creation of an inclusive work environment where all employees can have fair and transparent progress based on their goals and qualifications. The “glass ceiling” literature has empirically demonstrated that managers can reduce the negative gender-based stereotypes by empowering more qualified women to take on leadership responsibilities. At the meantime, professionals can serve as advocates in their local governments to create and change laws that are unfair and unjust. All local leaders, managers and employees must promote the benefits of diversity to build and encourage inclusion in the workplace. Furthermore, all organizations can improve their inclusion training so their employees can keep an open mind regarding diversity. With the application of the recommended skills and suggestions, coupled along with public awareness and advocacy for equity in hiring and promotion decisions, the “glass ceiling” can certainly be eliminated in all organizational settings. Keywords: glass ceiling, discrimination, wage gap, inclusion, gender equality, mentoring, and career development.

Gender as a Factor in the Physician and Patient Interaction: From the Service Quality Perspective

Research has not yet adequately explored the potential interplay between the physician’s gender and the patient’s perception of the service quality. Although various studies have covered the measurement of service quality in the hospital industry, the gender perspective has not been touched on signifi cantly. This study is a review article that aims to explore how gender matters to the physician-patient interaction in the service setting. It discusses the patient’s responses to physicians of different genders and the behavior of physicians of different genders. Consequently, it was found that gender is one of the factors that infl uence the physician-patient interaction and patients’ perception of the doctor’s competence. The gender of the physician as well as the patient could infl uence the communication level in medical encounters. Gender-based stereotypes in the service encounter could also affect the patient-physician interaction and the evaluations that patients give to physicians. Moreover, it was discussed that traditions, religion, culture, stereotypes and past experience serve as a foundation for customers to form a preference for the physician’s sex. The relationship between the physician and the patient is shaped by many factors lying on both the patient’s and the doctor’s side. These factors include the difference in communication style between males and females, the patient-physician gender dyad, the difference in personality traits between males and females. All these factors fall under the service dimension that is essential in measuring the quality of service.

Should I Stay or Should I Go? The Role of Impostorism in STEM Persistence

Impostor phenomenon or “impostorism” refers to the experience of high-achieving individuals (particularly women) who, despite being successful, attribute their accomplishments to luck, and fear being exposed as frauds. In the current study, we examined the association between impostorism and graduate student self-efficacy, perceptions of the research-training environment, and attitudes toward academic persistence of 224 women completing a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)-related doctoral degree. As hypothesized, participants who identified more strongly with impostor characteristics reported a lower sense of self-efficacy, more negative views of their academic context, and more pessimistic outlooks toward attaining their doctorate. However, results from a multiple mediation analysis revealed that women’s levels of self-efficacy and perceptions of their doctoral environment accounted for the effects of impostorism on their attitudes about academic persistence. Also, the relation between impostorism and persistence attitudes strengthened as numerical representation of women in a STEM program increased. Results illuminate the potential role STEM departments can have on students’ persistence by developing early opportunities for research collaborations and fostering an early sense of accomplishment. Parents and teachers might also draw from our findings to develop strategies to inoculate younger students from the insidious effects of gender-based stereotypes. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index

Differences in Appearance-Based Trait Inferences for Male and Female Political Candidates

ABSTRACTStudies show that automatic trait inferences can predict outcomes of actual elections, but these studies generally include male candidates only. Substantial evidence also shows that female candidates are subject to gender-based stereotypes, which can lead to differences in how men and women candidates are evaluated. This article combines these two literatures to compare the effects of competence, threat, and attractiveness inferences in elections that include women. We use experimental data in which candidate pairs from state and local US elections were judged on these three traits and examine whether those ratings are predictive of election outcomes. We find that although competence matters most for elections involving only men, attractiveness predicts winners in women-only elections. In mixed-gender races, competence inferences predict success when the female candidate is perceived as more competent than the male candidate. Finally, unlike men, women benefit from being perceived as physically threatening in mixed-gender races.

Stereotype Threat in Male Nurse-Patient Interactions.

Stereotype threat describes the apprehension individuals experience from the prospect of confirming negative self-relevant stereotypes. Due to their minority status, male nurses are believed to be susceptible to stereotype threat effects in the field of nursing. One hundred eighty-three male nursing students were randomly assigned to one of three evaluative frames (patient management, empathy, or control) and tasked with completing an online patient simulation experiment. With empathy serving as a form of stereotype threat, participant responses were analyzed for tentative language use. An interaction effect (patient gender × frame) was observed, where participants were most tentative when the simulation involved a male patient in the empathy frame. Findings from the study offer encouragement as the communicative abilities of participants were not consistently influenced under conditions of stereotype threat. This provides support for the need to forearm male nurses against the pernicious effects of gender-based stereotypes. [J Nurs Educ. 2018;57(10):614-619.].

Cultural Factors, Depressive and Somatic Symptoms Among Chinese American and European American College Students

This study seeks to fill a gap in the existing empirical literature about the relationship between somatic and depressive symptoms and their associations with cultural factors among Chinese American and European American college students. In particular, the study examined how three culturally relevant psychological constructs, self-construal, loss of face, and emotion regulation, associate with depressive and somatic symptoms among Chinese American and European American college students and if they can explain possible group differences in depressive symptoms. The sample consisted of 204 Chinese American and 315 European American college students who completed an online survey. Based on multiple regression analyses, European American students reported higher levels of somatic symptoms on the Patient Health Questionnaire–15 (PHQ-15) than Chinese Americans. There was no initial group difference in depressive symptoms based on Center for Epidemiologic Studies–Depression Scale (CES-D) scores. Correlations between depressive and somatic symptoms, independent and interdependent self-construal, and cognitive reappraisal and independent self-construal were stronger for European Americans than Chinese Americans. Somatic symptoms, loss of face, and expressive suppression were positively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas independent self-construal and cognitive reappraisal were negatively associated with depressive symptoms for both groups. When controlling for gender and somatic symptoms, being Chinese American and male was significantly and positively associated with depressive symptoms measured with the CES-D. These ethnic and gender differences in depressive symptoms were explained by independent self-construal, loss of face, cognitive reappraisal, and expressive suppression. Clinical implications include the incorporation of specific culturally relevant constructs and avoidance of race-, ethnicity-, and gender-based stereotypes to reduce health disparities in depression treatment.