Onset Gelatinization Temperature Research Articles

Functional, thermal, pasting, and rheological properties of gluten‐free maize composite flour: Effect of moth bean flour and hydrocolloid addition

Celiac disease is triggered by the consumption of gluten-rich foods that has emerged as a major global health problem. In fact, it is now important to look for an alternate and cheap source to develop a gluten-free diet using alternative ingredients. Therefore, the aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of moth bean flour and xanthan gum addition on the functional, thermal, pasting, and rheological properties of gluten-free maize dough. The results showed that the addition of moth bean and xanthan gum increased the functional (e.g., water absorption capacity of 1.89–2.52 g/g) and thermal (e.g., gelatinization onset temperature [To: 68.55–70.55°C] and enthalpy [ΔH: 1.66–2.89 J/g]) properties, while pasting properties varied. All formulations showed more solid-elastic than viscous behavior (G′ > G″) with tan δ < 1. Thus, the study concluded that the addition of protein source and hydrocolloid to maize flour can be a potential alternative to develop gluten-free bread and buns. Novelty impact statement Gluten-free flour blends were prepared with the mixture of maize flour, moth bean flour, and xanthan gum. Gluten-free flour blends mimicked viscoelastic properties of the gluten network and structural aspects of the gluten-rich dough. Gluten-free flour blends were found to be solid elastic-like behavior (G′ > G″). Gluten-free flour blends can be used in the preparation of baked products, such as bread.

Development of Quality Characteristics of Pasta Enriched with Lupin (Lupinus albus L.) Flour and Resistant Starch Type 4

Lupin (Lupinus albus L.) is a leguminous seed with a good source of protein, dietary fiber, fat, and is an alternative to soybean. Resistant starch, a prebiotic dietary fiber, cannot be digested in the small intestine; can help prevent diabetes, some cancer types, obesity, intestinal diseases and cardiovascular diseases. In this study, 15% lupin flour (debittered by traditional method and ultrasound application) and 10% resistant starch type 4 (RS4) were used in pasta production to improve its nutritional quality. The effects of vital gluten and/or transglutaminase on color, cooking quality, thermal and sensory properties of pasta containing lupin flour and RS4 were investigated. Ultrasound application had no adverse impact on the color L*, a*, b*, water uptake, cooking loss, thermal and sensory (color, taste, odor, appearance, stickiness and overall acceptability) properties of pasta samples compared to traditional lupin debittering method. Compared to 100% semolina pasta, addition of lupin flour and RS4 revealed a higher b* value, cooking loss and gelatinization onset temperature, and lower volume increase, firmness and gelatinization enthalpy values in pasta. The use of additives (vital gluten, transglutaminase and vital gluten + transglutaminase) improved the volume increase, cooking loss and firmness values of pasta containing 15% lupin flour + 10% RS4. The lowest cooking loss values were obtained in 100% semolina pasta (4.62%) as well as pasta samples supplemented with vital gluten (4.82%) and vital gluten + transglutaminase (4.90%). The color, taste and odor scores of 15% lupin flour + 10% RS4 pasta samples prepared with additives were close to each other. The addition of vital gluten and vital gluten + transglutaminase presented similar overall acceptability scores to 100% semolina pasta (P&amp;gt;0.05).

Sous vide processed potatoes: Starch retrogradation in tuber and oral-gastro-small intestinal starch digestion in vitro

Sous vide processing of potatoes followed by retrogradation was investigated with an intention to create processed potatoes with resistance to starch digestive enzyme during oral-gastro-small intestinal digestion in vitro. Potato cv. Agria (A) and cv. Nadine (N) were sous vide processed at two temperatures (55 °C or 65 °C). Resulting starch granules of A55 and N55 were intact with limited swelling relative to their raw counterparts. Gelatinisation onset (To) and peak (Tp) temperatures of both A55 and N55 were higher than for Araw and Nraw, displaying enhanced crystalline perfection. Raw cv. Agria with higher relative crystallinity, 27% increasing to 32% showed less change than cv. Nadine did (from raw, 23% to N55, 33%) after sous vide cooking. The increase in relaxation time T21 of A55 and N55 over that for Araw and Nraw indicated that the water pool associated with amorphous starch and crystalline regions became mobile. Thermal characteristics of A65 couldn't be discerned, whereas the To and Tp of N65 were higher than for Nraw or N55. Sous vide (at 65 °C) cooked-chill cv. Agria had significantly lower estimated glycaemic index (58) than traditionally cooked-chill tuber (73) but increased (77) upon reheating.

Gelatinization or Pasting? The Impact of Different Temperature Levels on the Saccharification Efficiency of Barley Malt Starch.

Efficient enzymatic hydrolysis of cereal starches requires a proper hydrothermal pre-treatment. For malted barley, however, the exact initial temperature is presently unknown. Therefore, samples were micro-mashed according to accurately determined gelatinization and pasting temperatures. The impact on starch morphology, mash viscometry and sugar yields was recorded in the presence and absence of an amylase inhibitor to differentiate between morphological and enzymatic effects. Mashing at gelatinization onset temperatures (54.5–57.1 °C) led to negligible morphological and viscometric changes, whereas mashing at pasting onset temperatures (57.5–59.8 °C) induced significant starch granule swelling and degradation resulting in increased sugar yields (61.7% of upper reference limit). Complete hydrolysis of A-type and partial hydrolysis of B-type granules was achieved within only 10 min of mashing at higher temperatures (61.4–64.5 °C), resulting in a sugar yield of 97.5% as compared to the reference laboratory method mashing procedure (65 °C for 60 min). The results indicate that the beginning of starch pasting was correctly identified and point out the potential of an adapted process temperature control.

Physicochemical and Structural Characterization of Potato Starch with Different Degrees of Gelatinization.

Starch gelatinization has been widely studied previously, but there is still a lack of systematical research on the relationship between the degree of starch gelatinization (DSG) and its physicochemical and structural properties. In this study, potato starch samples with DSG ranging from 39.41% to 90.56% were obtained by hydrothermal treatment. The thermal, rheological, and structural properties, as well as the water-binding capacity of samples were investigated. A starch solution with a DSG of 39.41% was partially sedimented at room temperature, while starch with a DSG of 56.11% can form a stable paste with a fine shear-thinning property, as well as samples with a DSG larger than 56.11%. The endothermic enthalpy, gelatinization range, and short-range ordered structure of starch were negatively correlated with DSG, whereas onset gelatinization temperature, apparent viscosity, and water-binding capacity were positively correlated. The viscoelasticity of starch gels was negatively correlated with the DSG after full gelatinization (DSG > 39.41%). Starch granules gradually lose their typical shape and less birefringence can be observed with increasing DSG. Hydrothermal treatment has a more significant effect on the amount of exposed hydroxyl groups than the ordered and amorphous structures of partially gelatinized starch. This study built linear correlations between starch physicochemical properties and the DSG and provided comprehensive insight into the characteristics of partially gelatinized potato starch.

Mechanisms controlling wheat starch gelatinization and pasting behaviour in presence of sugars and sugar replacers: Role of hydrogen bonding and plasticizer molar volume

The effect of sugars and sugar replacers (i.e. plasticizers) on the gelatinization and pasting behaviour of wheat starch was studied. The intrinsic properties of the plasticizers, i.e. the molar volume density of effective hydroxyl groups NOH,s/vs, and the volumetric density of hydrogen bonds in the sugar solutions treated as a single solvent, i.e. Φw,eff, were proposed as factors controlling swelling (i.e. pasting) and gelatinization behaviour. Different classes of plasticizers were used including sugars, polyols, amino acids, soluble fibres such as oligofructoses, and mixtures thereof. The onset, peak and end temperature of starch gelatinization obtained by differential scanning calorimetry could be well described by Φw,eff for all solutions, following predictions from an adapted Flory-Huggins model for polymer melting. The multiple transitions involved in starch gelatinization could be well related to different ranges of Φw,eff following a side chain liquid crystalline model for starch. Deviations from the model predictions were observed mainly for Tonset in conditions of intermediate and excess solvent with high sugar concentrations (50% w/w). In such conditions phase separation likely occurs, increasing the effective starch concentration and consequently gelatinization temperatures. Pasting behaviour related to swelling, i.e. peak viscosity, was found to be a sigmoidal Fermi function of NOH,s/vs of the plasticizers. Plasticizers with high NOH,s/vs enhanced swelling compared to water while those with low NOH,s/vs had an inhibition effect. Overall, a comprehensive mechanism of starch plasticization, swelling and melting is proposed. Swelling associated with solvent ingress and helix-helix dissociation is affected by kinetic factors related to size and viscosity of the plasticizers (both described by NOH,s/vs) and by thermodynamic factors related to sugar partitioning and H-bonding ability (both related to Φw,eff). Melting of crystalline domains associated to helix-coil transition is controlled by thermodynamics, based on solvent H-bonding ability Φw,eff.

Effect of ultrasonicated lupin flour and resistant starch (type 4) on the physical and chemical properties of pasta

In this study, two different lupin flour obtained from debittered seeds by ultrasound application and traditional method (at 0–20% ratios), and resistant starch type 4 (RS4) (at 0–10% ratios) were used in pasta preparation to improve its nutritional quality. Experiments conducted at (2 × 4 × 3) × 2 factorial design. Use of ultrasonicated lupin flour in pasta revealed similar chemical, thermal and sensory properties to lupin flour debittered by traditional method. The replacement of semolina with lupin flour enhanced protein, dietary fiber and mineral content of pasta. Addition of lupin flour or RS4 increased cooking loss and firmness values of pasta. Pasta containing 20% lupin flour and 10% RS4 had higher gelatinization onset temperature values, and lower enthalpy than 100% semolina pasta. Use of RS4 in pasta reduced in vitro glycemic index without having any adverse effect on the sensory properties. The current findings indicate that it is possible to produce pasta with acceptable cooking quality and sensory properties and improved nutritional quality by adding 15% ultrasonicated lupin flour with 5–10% RS4.

Pasting, gelatinization, and rheological properties of wheat starch in the presence of sucrose and gluten

The effect of starch/sucrose/gluten interactions on the thermal and rheological behavior of starch–gluten slurries was analyzed. Starch:gluten mixtures were dispersed in water and in a sucrose 50% (w/w) solution. The presence of sucrose significantly modified the pasting profiles of starch. Starch and starch:gluten slurries in sucrose solution showed a continuous increase of viscosity with the temperature rise, in contrast to samples in water, which presented the typical curve shape for starch. A decrease of starch viscosity during pasting was observed with increasing gluten proportion. The onset temperature of starch gelatinization was substantially increased with the addition of sucrose. Gluten addition slightly increased the gelatinization onset temperature in water, but not in sucrose solution. The presence of sucrose caused liquid-like viscoelastic properties of the starch gels, compared to gels made in water. Gluten addition decreased the gel viscoelastic properties in samples dispersed in water and sucrose solution. New particles populations were distinguished in gel samples with gluten. These results are an important basis to understand the effect of flour’s main components on the behavior of sugar-rich batter systems.

Impact of Microwave Irradiation Energy Levels on Molecular Rotation, Structural, Physicochemical, Proximate and Functional Properties of Potato (Ipomoea batatas) Starch

Starch isolated from potato was subjected to microwave treatment at different energy levels (200 - 800 W) to modify the functional, structural and physicochemical properties, as well as induce molecular rotation of the hydroxyl group on the starch polysaccharide. Proximate analyses revealed that moisture content reduced, while ash, protein, fat and fibre increased after modification. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy spectra indicated a strong shift in absorption band of OH from 3441 to 3454 cm-1. Optical light microscopy revealed that starch granules were oval and spherical in shape with hyla on some of the granules. Least gelation concentration reduced following microwave treatment. Compared with the native starch, the pasting parameters of the microwave treated starches decreased, with the exception of set­back viscosity for starch modified at 800 W. Onset temperature (TO), peak temperature (TP) and conclusion temperature (TC) of gelatinization increased in microwave treated starches compared with native potato starch. Also, gelatinization enthalpy increased from 8.21 J/g in native starch to 15.39, 16.36, 17.76 and 38.06 J/g in microwave treated starches at 200, 400, 600, and 800 W, respectively. It was concluded that the energy of microwave irradiation can induce and accelerate molecular rotation of the hydroxyl group on the starch polysaccharide.

The effects of commercially available sweeteners (sucrose and sucrose replacers) on wheat starch gelatinization and pasting, and cookie baking.

A variety of sucrose replacers (SRs) are increasing in popularity for reducing sucrose usage in low moisture baked goods (cookies, biscuits, etc.). The goal of this study was to link SR physicochemical properties to their observed effects on starch thermal properties, including results from differential scanning calorimetry, rapid viscoanalysis, particle size analysis, and model wire-cut cookie baking performance. The 12 SRs examined in this study were: Truvia, Splenda, Swerve, coconut palm sugar, Monk Fruit, erythritol, Benefiber, Miralax, blue agave syrup, yacon syrup, Sukrín Fiber Gold Syrup, and date syrup. The onset gelatinization temperature (Tgel ) of wheat starch increased significantly (P < 0.05) as sucrose and SR concentration increased (0 to 60% w/w), with significant variations in Tgel found between different sweetener types at the same concentration. Generally, as solution concentration increased, the larger SRs (degree of polymerization [DP]> 10) decreased paste viscosity (peak and final), decreased granule swelling, and increased Tgel compared to the control (water). The smaller SRs (DP < 10) increased both paste viscosity (peak and final) and granule swelling, unlike the larger SRs, and did not increase Tgel as much as larger SRs. The SRs which performed similar to sucrose in model cookie baking (fracturability, spread, color, etc.) and effects on starch properties (Tgel , paste viscosity, and granule swelling) were yacon, Sukrín, date syrups, and coconut palm sugar. The results linking sweetener physicochemical properties to their effects on starch gelatinization, pasting, and swelling can be used to guide reformulation strategies for potentially reducing sugar and/or increasing fiber content in foods. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Several commercially available natural sweeteners and polymers (coconut palm sugar, date syrup, yacon syrup, Sukrín Fiber Gold syrup, and Benefiber) show promise for reducing or replacing sucrose in cookies, and other low-moisture baked goods, based on their similar effects on wheat starch gelatinization, pasting, and swelling, as well as performance in cookie baking trials. Compared to sucrose, some of these ingredients have a lower glycemic response and higher dietary fiber content, and act as prebiotics, thereby providing potential health benefit.

Structural and functional properties of indica rice starch as influenced by late-stage nitrogen fertilization

ABSTRACT Late-stage nitrogen (N) fertilization is an important crop management for improving rice production and also affects the quality of rice, whereas information on the influence of late N on structural and functional properties of indica rice starch is lacking. In this study, effects of various N rates (0, 60, and 120 kg ha−1 referred to as N0, N60 and N120, respectively) on structural and functional properties of grain starches from two rice cultivars (OM052 and Chaoyou1000) were investigated. Comparison of different N treatments showed that late N application exhibited strong influence on starch properties, and the sensitivity to N application varied with rice genotypes. Compared to non N rate, higher input of N (N60 for OM052, and N120 for Chaoyou1000) significantly reduced apparent amylose content (AAC), relative crystallinity (RC), gelatinization enthalpy, swelling power, solubility and degree of hydrolysis, but significantly increased the proportion of short chains with degree of polymerization 6–12 in amylopectin and gelatinization onset temperature. Further comparison and principal component analyses revealed that the variations in the starch functional properties were due mainly to the changes in RC. The solubility was positively associated with AAC. The present results can provide important information for understanding the environmental regulation of starch biosynthesis in rice grain.

Effect of Cultivar Difference and Root Growth Stage on the Thermal, Rheological, and In Vitro Digestibility Properties of Cassava Starch

AbstractThe gelatinization, rheological, and in vitro digestibility properties of cassava starch isolated from the roots of five diverse cassava cultivars at different growth stages are studied. The thermal, rheological, and pasting properties of the starch vary significantly with the cultivar and the root growth stage. The onset gelatinization temperature (To) is significantly lower for the triploid starch of the cultivar, Sree Athulya; while the starch of the early maturing variety, Vellayani Hraswa has higher To. The popular normal duration edible variety, Malayan‐4 shows comparatively lower viscosity breakdown among the starches indicating its higher stability toward shear stress and temperature. All the starch gels exhibit weak gel properties. The resistant starch content of the starches shows no significant variation with the cultivar, ploidy level, and the growth stage of the crop. However, the slowly digestible starch content is lower for the edible cultivars. The cultivar type, its ploidy level, and root maturity have significant effect on the pasting, rheological, and in vitro digestibility properties of cassava starch. The results of this study help to identify the cultivar type and harvest stage for isolating starch to suit specific applications in food and other industries.

Prediction of the effect of sucrose on equilibrium swelling of starch suspensions

Equilibrium swelling of 8 wt % suspension of waxy (WMS) and normal (NMS) maize, waxy(WRS) and normal(NRS) rice when heated to 80 °C at different sucrose concentrations (0–30 wt %) were characterized. The swelling power reached maximum values of 10.5 and 14.5 at sucrose concentration of 5 wt % and 10 wt % for NMS and WRS respectively, increased with sucrose concentration for WMS from 11 to 15.5 and decreased for NRS from 11 to 8.2. The onset temperature of gelatinization increased with sucrose concentration for all starches whereas enthalpy of gelatinization increased for normal maize starches and did not vary significantly for waxy starches. The interaction parameters for three component system of starch, water and sucrose were inferred from static light scattering. The predicted equilibrium swelling for all starches at different sucrose concentrations using Flory-Huggins theory agreed well with experimental data.

Influence of κ-carrageenan on the rheological behaviour of a model cake flour system

This study examined the effect of κ-carrageenan (κ-C) at various concentrations on the rheological properties of a model cake flour system. Increasing the κ-C concentrations in starch-gluten system led to an increase in both viscosity and G′ and G″ moduli, indicating greater firmness of the sample, which caused by the entanglement of κ-C with starch and gluten. Moreover, increasing κ-C also led to decreasing creep compliance, indicating the samples had a higher resistance towards deformation. Gluten was more sensitive for the κ-C concentrations in creep-recovery test and then influenced the changes in starch-gluten system. Lastly, sample with κ-C addition at 10 g/100 g increased the starch gelatinisation onset temperatures from 58.6 to 66.2 °C and from 58.3 to 65.1 °C in the starch and starch-gluten system, respectively. The delay in the starch gelatinisation process could be caused by the lower water activity resulting from the high water holding capability of κ-C. These results enhanced our understanding of the interactions of κ-C with flour components and promote the potential application of carrageenan-containing materials, such as Eucheuma, in bakery products.

Effect of glutathione on gelatinization and retrogradation of wheat flour and starch

Reduced glutathione (GSH) commonly exists in wheat flour and has remarkable influence on gluten properties. In this study, effect of GSH on the gelatinization and retrogradation of wheat flour and wheat starch were investigated to better understand the GSH-gluten-starch interactions in wheat flour. Compared with wheat starch, wheat flour showed significant decreases in peak and final viscosity, and gelatinization onset temperature with increasing GSH concentration. GSH depolymerized gluten and thereby broke down the protein barrier around starch granules to make the starch easily gelatinized. However, the interaction between GSH and wheat starch restrained starch swelling. GSH addition resulted in weakened structure with higher water mobility in freshly gelatinized wheat flour dispersions but decreased water mobility in wheat starch dispersions. After storage at 4 °C for 7 d, GSH increased elasticity and retrogradation degree in wheat flour dispersions but retarded retrogradation in wheat starch dispersions. The results indicated that GSH promoted retrogradation of wheat flour, which mainly attributed to the depolymerized gluten embedding in the leached starch chains, and inhibiting the re-association of amylose, and subsequently promoted the starch intermolecular associations and starch retrogradation. This study could provide valuable information for the control of the quality of wheat flour-based products.

Intact endosperm cells in buckwheat flour limit starch gelatinization and digestibility in vitro.

The objective of this study was to determine the biophysical properties of buckwheat (BW) endosperm and their influences on detachment of intact cells, starch gelatinization and digestibility. The intact cells were isolated from BW kernels by dry milling and sieving. The microscopy and texture analysis showed intact endosperm cells could be detached easily due to the fragile structure and low hardness of BW endosperm. More than 70% intact cells were found in commercial light flour. The starch granules entrapped in intact cells exhibited a delay gelatinization and restricted swelling behavior (2-3℃ higher onset gelatinization temperature than isolated starch). Starch in BW flour had a markedly lower extent of digestion compared to the broken cells and isolated starch. This study provided a new mechanistic understanding of low glycemic index of BW food, and could guide the processing of BW flour to retain slow digestion properties.

Effects of cassava variety and growth location on starch fine structure and physicochemical properties

Apparent amylose content (AAC), resistant starch (RS) content, pasting, gelatinization, retrogradation properties, and fine structural parameters amongst starches from five Thai cassava cultivars grown in two different locations were determined. Results indicated that significant differences among different varieties were found for most traits. The AAC, gelatinization onset (To) and peak temperature (Tp), the ratio of peak heights of amylopectin (hAP2/hAP1) and chain length distribution (CLD) of amylopectin fa, fb2, fb3 and average CLD (X‾) were mainly affected by genotypic effects. The peak viscosity (PV), breakdown (BD), molecular size of amylose (Rh, AM) and amylopectin (Rh, AP), average molecular size (Rh‾), the position of amylopectin peak (XAP1) and fb1 were mainly affected by environmental effects. The effects of the genotype × environment interaction were significant for BD, Rh, AM, Rh, AP, hAP2/hAP1 and fb2 values. RS was negatively correlated with the amount of amylopectin fa chains. PV and BD were affected by Rh, AM, Rh, AP, XAP1, XAP2, and the amount of fb1 chains. To and Tp were affected by XAP1, XAP2, fb1 and fb2. These results enhance our understanding of the structure-function relations of starches and are useful for the application of starch in the food industry and for breeding programs to improve the cassava starch quality.

Physicochemical, thermal and rheological properties of commercial wheat flours and corresponding starches

Abstract The quality attributes, including physicochemical, thermal and rheological properties of commercial bread, pau, multipurpose and cake flours, as well as their corresponding isolated starches were analyzed. Bread flour showed the highest solvent retention capacity (SRC) and gluten performance index (GPI), suggesting better functionality than others. Starch was isolated from all types of flour and fractionated into A-type and B-type starch granules. A-type disk-like starch granule had larger diameter (>10 μm) than B-type spherical starch granule (<5 μm diameter). For bread, pau and multipurpose flours, A-type starch granules contained higher amylose content than B-type and unfractionated starch granules significantly. Results suggested a high degree of crystallinity and high amount of amylose-lipid complexes in A-type starch granules, thus leading to low swelling power, solubility, gelatinization onset (To) and peak (Tp) temperatures. However, cake flour showed contrary properties, where B-type starch granules consisted higher amylose content than A-type starch granules. Furthermore, A-type and unfractionated starch granules of all types of wheat flour exhibited shear thickening behavior at 25-45 oC, but shear thinning behavior at 65 oC. The outcomes would be of benefit to the quality improvement on wheat flour with particular functionalities of their starches for specific applications.

Influence of germination on physicochemical properties of flours from brown rice, oat, sorghum, and millet.

The changes in physiochemical properties of flours obtained from the four selected grains after germination were investigated. After germination, the sprout length of sorghum and millet was substantially larger than that of brown rice and oat. Germination led to a decrease in the apparent amylose content and swelling factor of flours. Gelatinization onset and peak temperatures increased after germination, while a slight decrease was found in conclusion temperature. Compared to the raw flours, the germinated flours derived from brown rice, sorghum, and millet had lower gelatinization enthalpy, whereas the germinated oat flour showed higher gelatinization enthalpy. Germination resulted in significant decrease in pasting parameters of the four flours. Amylose leaching of sorghum and millet flours increased after germination, while the brown rice and oat flours showed a significant decrease in amylose leaching. Results suggest that germination effectively altered the physicochemical properties of grain flours, which can be utilized as functional ingredient in the preparation of grain-based products.

Effect of microwave treatment (low power and varying time) on potato starch: Microstructure, thermo-functional, pasting and rheological properties

The present study focused on the effect of microwave treatment (300 W for 1, 3 and 5 min) on the physicochemical, morphological, structural and rheological properties of potato starch. Significant effect (p < 0.05) of treatment time was observed on water activity and moisture content while non-significant effect occurred on color. Water absorption capacity increased from 0.82–1.16 g/g with treatment time while oil absorption capacity decreased from 0.63–0.53 g/g. Dynamic and loss moduli, pasting temperatures and final viscosities were positively correlated with treatment time. The peak and pasting viscosity incremented till 3 min treatment but decreased at 5 min. Onset temperature of gelatinization ranged from 53.8 to 57.4 °C with treatment time. SEM micrographs showed unaffected starch granules at 1 min of treatment while fissures and indentations developed at 3 and 5 min. The X-Ray diffraction patterns indicated the transformation of starch crystals from B crystallite to amorphic type.