Cultivating hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria (HOB), such as Cupriavidus necator, using , , and offers a promising route for valorization into chemicals and materials. To enhance cultivation efficiency in a lab-scale gas fermenter lacking a gas recycling system, an automated gas supply strategy based on real-time and monitoring was developed. Fine-tuning gas delivery is essential to ensure an adequate supply for cellular growth while minimizing excess gas, particularly , that leaves the bioreactor unused, to improve process economics. In the absence of ATEX-compliant sensors, a soft sensor was implemented to estimate dissolved concentrations from uptake rates and growth phase identification. Total gas flow was controlled according to the requirements of the cells. This strategy reduced overall gas and consumption by 67%. In addition, a high-cell-density medium was formulated by integrating published recipes with Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy and nutrient inhibition testing. The optimized medium increased biomass yield from 15 g/L to 53 g/L, with 75% of the dry weight consisting of the bioplastic poly(3-hydroxybutyrate), without requiring nutrient addition or pH control. Together, these strategies improve the scalability, efficiency, and sustainability of -based cultivation of hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria.

Increasing Nitrogen Supply and Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions through Active Management of Wastewater Treatment Plants

High-pressure water jet technology is widely utilized for cleaning marine artificial structures due to its portability, efficiency, and environmental friendliness, yet traditional jets underperform in submerged environments. Gas-assisted water jet technology has predominantly been applied to rock breaking—where vertical forces are prioritized—with insufficient research into flow regime evolution, limiting its utility for cleaning applications. This study introduces a supercavitating high-pressure water jet aimed at improving underwater cleaning efficiency while lowering economic costs. Employing ANSYS Fluent—with the RNG k-ε turbulence model and mixture model—validated via high-speed camera experiments, we explored the flow regime evolution of both unconstrained and semi-constrained impinging jets. The key findings of this paper are as follows: The cavity evolves with a periodic “necking-bubbling” pattern, whose intensity correlates positively with gas outlet velocity and supply rate; moderate gas supply—with 120 L/min identified as optimal through orthogonal analysis—effectively delays water jet breakup. For semi-constrained jets, the wall-adjacent gas flow also exhibits “necking-bubbling”; small-angle impact (30° versus 60°) reduces near-wall shear vortices, enhancing gas cavity stability on the target plate. This study bridges the gap between gas-assisted jet technology and underwater cleaning requirements, offering theoretical insights and optimized parameters for efficient, low-cost marine structure cleaning. It thereby supports the sustainable exploitation of marine resources and the stable operation of key marine facilities.

Purpose. To study the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of gas hydrate formation in high-pressure pipelines, develop a model for predicting hydrohydrate formation, and determine the key parameters that affect this process. Methodology. The study uses a combination of thermodynamic analysis and mathematical modeling of kinetic processes of hydrohydrate formation. To assess the conditions for gas hydrate formation, a wide range of operating parameters was analyzed, including variations in pressure and temperature in pipelines, changes in the composition of the gas mixture, as well as the effect of flow and turbulence. The model is based on existing thermodynamic equilibrium relationships supplemented by empirical dependencies describing the kinetic mechanisms of hydrate crystal formation. The results. In the course of the study, a mathematical model was developed that allows predicting the conditions for gas hydrate formation in pipelines taking into account both equilibrium and nonequilibrium parameters. Critical ranges of temperatures and pressures in which the probability of hydrate plug formation increases significantly were established. An algorithm for assessing the risk of hydroformation in real time is proposed, which can be integrated into gas transmission network monitoring systems. The obtained results allow for preventive measures to minimize the risks of pipeline blocking. Scientific novelty. For the first time, a comprehensive model has been created that combines thermodynamic calculations and kinetic parameters of gas hydrate formation in a single analytical approach. The model takes into account not only physicochemical conditions, but also the dynamics of the gas flow, which allows for a more accurate prediction of the behavior of hydrate phases under real operating conditions. The proposed approach expands the scientific understanding of the mechanisms of hydroformation and lays the foundation for further applied research in the field of safe gas transportation. Practical significance. The obtained results have high applied potential in the field of gas transmission system operation. The proposed technique can be used to develop strategies for preventing hydrate plug formation, in particular through the implementation of monitoring and control systems adapted to changes in operating conditions. This will significantly reduce the likelihood of emergency situations, reduce maintenance costs and ensure the stability and safety of natural gas supply to consumers.

A systematic analysis of the current regulatory framework of Ukraine in the field of gas supply was conducted. Inaccuracies and discrepancies in the interpretation of similar terms and definitions in various regulatory documents were identified. In addition, inconsistencies were found between the current rules for performing work on the operation of the gas industry and the real conditions observed in the country. The current problems of the functioning of gas supply systems in existing operating conditions were considered. In order to improve regulatory regulation, it was proposed to standardize the main terms and definitions in current and new documents. Certain indicators defined in DBN V.2.5-20:2018 "Gas Supply" require revision, in particular the numerical values ​​of the simultaneity coefficient Ksim for residential buildings (Appendix B) and the provisions of paragraph 5 of Appendix D regarding the hydraulic calculation of gas pipelines. It is proposed to limit the calculated total pressure losses in low-pressure gas pipelines (from the gas supply source to the most remote device) to 100 daPa, in particular: 40 daPa in distribution gas pipelines and 60 daPa in gas inlets and internal gas pipelines. For low-pressure systems, it is recommended to set the lower limit for the operation of safety relief valves in accordance with the pressures specified in the Technical Regulations for Natural Gas, with subsequent correction in NPAOP 0.00-1.76-15 "Safety Rules for Gas Supply Systems". A promising area for further research is the deepening of scientific work aimed at substantiating the conditions for the use of hydrogen-methane mixtures and modernising gas supply systems, taking into account their impact on materials, equipment and operating modes. It is particularly important to incorporate the scientific results obtained into regulatory and technical documents in order to update the requirements for the safety, reliability and efficiency of gas distribution networks.

The use of alternative energy sources and fuels is one of the most important areas of modern energy policy, aimed both at improving the environment and saving traditional fuel and energy resources. The meaning of the process of ecological and energy optimisation isn’t the replacement of one energy source with another, but economic and industrial transformation, decarbonisation, and decentralisation. Russian aggression caused unprecedented destruction of Ukraine’s fuel and energy infrastructure, which created a threat to the reliability of providing end consumers with natural gas – the main organic energy carrier capable of fully satisfying the state’s own needs. Agricultural waste and solid waste landfills can, under certain conditions, be transformed from environmental pollution into renewable energy sources with the generation of biogas. Its main components are methane and carbon dioxide. Biogas utilisation will simultaneously solve environmental problems associated with "thermal" environmental pollution. The results of the analysis of the European Green Deal strategy and global pricing of carbon dioxide emissions show the need to increase tax obligations in Ukraine for greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere to achieve the goals of limiting the increase in global environmental temperature to 1.5-2 ˚C. The article substantiates the possibility of full or partial replacement of natural gas with biomethane obtained from the utilisation of agro-industrial waste, household waste, etc. to meet the needs of the housing and communal services of Ukraine. A comparison of the physicochemical parameters of traditional natural gas and biomethane with the requirements of current regulatory documents has been made. The areas of application of biomethane in gaseous and liquefied states have been determined. The design solutions of technological installations for autonomous gas supply systems have been substantiated.

The article analyses and compares mathematical methods for supporting the regulation of gas consumption irregularities in Ukraine's gas distribution system under conditions of uncertainty. The study highlights the growing instability of Ukraine’s energy sector, which is caused by wartime destruction of infrastructure, fluctuations in demand, and shifts in the consumer base. The authors systematize long-term and short-term approaches to balancing gas consumption, including underground gas storage, the use of buffer consumers, and pressure-based storage in pipelines. Mathematical dependencies for evaluating seasonal, daily, and hourly unevenness are presented. The proposed integrated decision-support approach combines stochastic and scenario modelling methods to improve the reliability and adaptability of gas supply systems. Practical recommendations are provided for optimising gas transportation and storage under uncertain conditions. The results obtained can be used in planning gas supply schemes, improving energy security, and developing intelligent systems for forecasting and regulating gas consumption.

Microporous layers (MPLs) play a pivotal role in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) by regulating water management and reactant transport. However, conventional MPLs with single-sized pores lack the structural versatility to simultaneously meet the requirements for efficient gas transport and water removal, which severely limits the performance improvement of PEMFCs. This study fabricates an MPL with a graded pore structure through solvent-controlled differentiation and a stepwise coating-sintering process, which synergistically enhances capillary-driven gas supply and liquid water removal. Multiphysics simulations confirm that the gradient structure improves water drainage and gas diffusion, and this improvement is reflected in the superior performance of the graded MPL compared with conventional single-layer structures under varying backpressure conditions. The MPL with a graded pore structure exhibits the highest output performance of 1860 mW cm-2 under hydrogen/air operation at a high relative humidity of 100%, representing an improvement of approximately 36.8% over the commercial MPL, and still delivers a 10.4% enhancement under 75% relative humidity. The notable performance gains achieved underscore the practical potential of the fabrication method, while our findings establish critical structure-transport correlations for MPL optimization in advanced PEMFCs.

This study offers a comparative analysis of the opportunities and threats posed by China’s and India’s major economic initiatives—the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), the TAPI Transit-Economic Project, and the North–South Transport Corridor (NSTC)—for Central Asian countries. Using qualitative thematic analysis based on a thematic matrix framework and document-based indirect observation, data were collected through purposive sampling of academic and policy sources, and thematic coding was employed to extract and categorize significant patterns of strategic impact across the three initiatives. Findings reveal that both China’s and India’s projects present significant opportunities for Central Asia, including expanded connectivity, enhanced transit potential, increased foreign investment, and strengthened multilateral engagement. At the same time, distinct threats also emerged: China’s BRI risks generating asymmetric dependence, regional imbalances, and intensified competition with Russia, while India’s projects may exacerbate geopolitical fragmentation, limit inclusivity, and increase alignment with Western strategic agendas. The analysis further shows that Central Asian states actively leverage the emerging multipolar environment through multi-vector strategies: Kazakhstan combines BRI-backed rail and port investments with participation in the NSTC to consolidate its role as a Eurasian transit hub; Turkmenistan simultaneously commits gas supplies to TAPI while courting Chinese financing and markets through BRI-linked energy corridors; and Uzbekistan engages with both Chinese and Indian connectivity frameworks—alongside Russian arrangements—to diversify export routes and bargaining partners. In this context, the evolution toward a multipolar economic order provides Central Asian governments with greater leverage to balance external actors while asserting their regional agency. The reliability and credibility of the findings were ensured through expert auditing and focus group validation. This research contributes to the broader understanding of Eurasian geoeconomic competition and offers strategic insights for regional policymakers navigating overlapping development initiatives.

Contaminated water detoxification remains difficult due to the presence of persistent halo-organic contaminants, such as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and chlorophenols, which are chemically stable and resist conventional purification methods. Functionalized membrane-based separation and decontamination have garnered immense attention in recent years. Commercially available microfiltration membrane (PVDF) and polymeric non-woven fiber filters (glass and composite) are functionalized with poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) that shows outstanding pH-responsive performance and tunable water permeability under ambient conditions perfect for environmental applications. Polymer loading based on weight gain measurements on PMAA–microglass composite fibers (137%) and microglass fibers (116%) confirmed their extent of functionalization, which was significantly greater than that of PVDF (25%) due to its widely effective pore diameter. Presence of chemically active hydrogel within PVDF matrix was validated by FTIR (hydroxyl/carbonyl) stretch peak, substantial decrease in contact angle (68.8° ± 0.5° to 30.8° ± 1.9°), and decrease in pure water flux from 509 to 148 LMH/bar. Nanoparticles are generated both in solution and within PVDF using simple redox reactions. This strategy is extended to PVDF-PMAA membranes, which are loaded with Fe/Pd nanoparticles for catalytic conversion of 4-chlorophenol and PFOA, forming Fe/Pd-PVDF-PMAA systems. A total of 0.25 mg/L Fe/Pd nanoparticles synthesized in solution displayed alloy-type structures and demonstrated a strong catalytic performance, achieving complete hydrogenation of 4-chlorophenol to phenol and 67% hydrogenation of PFOA to its reduced form at 22–23 °C with ultrapure hydrogen gas supply at pH 5.7. These results underscore the potential of hybrid polymer–nanoparticle systems as a novel remediation strategy, integrating tunable separation with catalytic degradation to overcome the limitations of conventional water treatment methods.

ABSTRACT This study employs 56 macroeconomic indicators to forecast the annual carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in Korea. The 56 macroeconomic indicators are analogous to those utilized in FRED-MD and represent Korean data from 1985 to 2022. This study uses various machine learning techniques, including XGBoost, complete subset regression, and random forest models. The Boruta algorithm, a variable selection technique based on the random forest model, is applied to identify the variables that exert the greatest influence on annual CO2 emissions forecasting. Furthermore, out-of-sample multi-period forecasts are evaluated for each forecasting model to select that which best predicts annual CO2 emissions. The results demonstrate that the random forest model and the random forest model with the Boruta algorithm exhibit the most favourable out-of-sample performance in short-term forecasting. In selecting variables to predict CO2 emissions using the Boruta algorithm, the production index and shipment index of producers in the electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning supply industry are identified as significant for enhancing the predictive capacity of the model. The findings provide key policy insights for carbon emissions management. Leveraging real-time macroeconomic indicators can help policymakers address delays in CO 2 emissions data, enabling adaptive regulations that balance economic growth and environmental sustainability.

A marine diesel engine is a complex power plant that requires various systems for its operation (air, cooling, lubrication, fuel, etc.). For reliable operation marine diesel engines must possess high reliability and power utilization efficiency. However, in recent years scientists, designers, and engineers have faced a new challenge: reducing harmful combustion emissions. This challenge is driven by the adoption of increasingly stringent environmental regulations. The key aspect of addressing this task is maintaining near-nominal levels of efficiency, specific power, reliability, and lifecycle cost. The final transition of a diesel engine to combined fuels requires a number of modernization measures which are supported by theoretical calculations and scientific research. This paper presents a mathematical description of the gas-air mixture flow through a device for separate gas supply into small-sized, naturally aspirated marine diesel engines operating on combined fuel (diesel and gas). A mathematical formulation for the problem of gas flow into the engine cylinder through the gas supply device is also provided.

Purpose Blockchain technology (BCT) is one of the promising and innovative Industry 4.0 technologies that emerged just over a decade ago and the oil and gas (O&G) sector is gradually embracing BCT to advance its supply chain (SC) operations. Oman’s O&G supply chain (OGSC) is embedded in traditional systems that struggle to manage logistics, control spills, address pilferage and handle demand fluctuations. As Oman moves toward implementing BCT technologies in its O&G networks, it is essential to analyse the feasibility of integrating BCT into its OGSC to inform strategic decision-making. This research work is novel in employing dynamic capabilities theory (DCT) to examine how organisations adapt, integrate and reconfigure internal and external resources and competencies to successfully adopt BCT technology within Oman’s OGSC. This study aims to investigate and assess the factors that facilitate and hinder the use of BCT in Oman's OGSC, utilizing the DCT framework to enhance SC operations. Design/methodology/approach The study used primary data collection methods, including interviews and surveys with OGSC experts. The qualitative interview transcripts were analysed using template analysis, while the quantitative survey data were assessed through the analytical hierarchy process (AHP). The latter was applied to provide actionable insights and prioritize the factors that facilitate and hinder BCT implementation in Oman’s OGSC. Findings The template analysis results emphasize the importance of enhancing security, reducing operational costs and improving sustainability as key drivers for implementing BCT in Oman's OGSC. Findings revealed that organisational structure, SC complexity and technological requirements were significant barriers to the adoption of BCT in OGSC. Originality/value The research proposes conducting a strategic planning analysis, holding workshops and training and implementing robust cybersecurity measures as recommendations to minimize barriers to implementing BCT in Oman's OGSC. Based on its generalizations, this work enriches the theoretical and practical literature on OGSC management in nations highly dependent on O&G. This study makes a novel theoretical contribution by demonstrating that adopting DCT within the context of BCT in OGSC can address technological, organisational and SC impediments.

Based on the process parameters of bottom argon blowing in the steel ladles of a certain steel plant, a 1:1 full-scale numerical model was established. The evolution laws of the flow field structure, homogenisation characteristics, and fluctuation behaviours of the steel and slag interfaces under different blowing rates were analysed in detail. The mechanism of the effects of different blowing parameters on the flow characteristics of the molten material and metallurgical efficiency was clarified. Research indicates that a double plug, different flow bottom blowing model can effectively reconfigure the melt pool flow field structure by differentially regulating the gas supply parameters of the porous plug. The upward flow created by the high bottom blowing rate (800 L/min) has stronger penetration, driving the molten steel to form a high-level diffusion circulation; the low bottom blowing rate (400 L/min) forms a diffuse flow field near the bottom. Together, they create a three-dimensional circulation system that covers the entire area. Numerical simulations and water model experiments confirm that the 800_400 L/min mode exhibits optimal dynamic characteristics: the mixing time calculated numerically is controlled within 47 seconds, a 5% reduction compared to the original mode. Additionally, the overall fluctuation of slag in the 800_400 L/min mode is controlled within 0.25 m, a 17% reduction compared to the original mode. Notably, this mode achieves a 25% reduction in argon gas consumption while maintaining metallurgical effectiveness, demonstrating significant engineering and economic benefits, and also providing a theoretical basis for optimising the refining process.

This research aims to examine the characteristics of agricultural land parcels in the district Charsadda of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and identify important factors influencing agricultural land prices. For this purpose, a sample of 100 land parcels with transaction records for the year 2023 was randomly selected from 10 villages in the Charsadda district. Information was collected on prices and their agricultural, geographical, and physical characteristics. The characteristics of agricultural land were summarized using a descriptive statistical approach. A Linear Hedonic Hedonic Pricing (HPM) model was used to evaluate agricultural land prices based on physical, locational, and agricultural characteristics. Due to their significant residential and commercial value, the results showed that the price of agricultural land parcels in the Charsadda district is comparatively high. The construction of roads, Hospitals, Schools, and Gas supply in Charsadda city attracts more people from the district's rural areas, raising the demand for commercial and residential land. Due to high demand, the agricultural land that is being used for residential and commercial purposes increases the land prices. According to study findings, about 22% of agricultural land is used for commercial and residential purposes. The findings of the study showed that irrigation water availability and soil fertility are the important factors of high agricultural land prices. Location-associated characteristics such as city and road distance, distance from residential to market, and agricultural land are the significant determinants driving agricultural land prices. To address the rising agricultural land prices in Charsadda, a comprehensive land use planning policy should be implemented.

The most effective device for cleaning gases, as well as air, from dust particles is a multi-section electric filter. Electrostatic precipitators, unlike other gas cleaning methods, such as cyclones or bag filters, have several advantages, including high efficiency in cleaning gases from fine particles up to several micrometers in size, low hydraulic resistance, which reduces the energy consumption for pumping gas, and the ability to operate at high temperatures and pressures.Precipitators are widely used in numerous processes in the oil and gas industry, ensuring efficient extraction of unwanted components from gas streams. Their use improves environmental safety and efficiency of production operations. For example, in thermal power plants using fossil fuels, precipitators remove ash, soot and other solid particles formed during combustion; oil and gas refining processes, such as cracking, reforming and others, form oil mists and aerosols, electrostatic precipitators effectively trap dispersed phases, preventing contamination of equipment, reducing risks to personnel health and helping to improve the quality of final products. Particular attention should be paid to the high efficiency of electrostatic precipitators in the treatment of associated petroleum gas and the removal of sulfur-containing components, which contributes to compliance with environmental standards and an increase in the commercial value of gas.The authors proposed a modification of the electrostatic precipitator aimed at preventing turbulence and reducing the probability of particle breakthrough due to exceeding the permissible flow rate, as well as increasing the efficiency of collecting purified gas. In the course of the study, the problem of uneven distribution of flows in the supply gas duct and diffuser was revealed, which negatively affects the efficiency of its operation, leads to an increase in electricity consumption and the need for frequent maintenance of precipitation electrodes. As part of the work carried out, the authors of the article proposed a constructive solution to improve the electrostatic precipitator, supported by appropriate calculations.The implementation of the proposed changes in the design of the precipitator will increase the efficiency of purification of industrial gases, reduce operating costs and increase the service life of the equipment. The research results and design solutions can be used in the design of new and modernization of existing electrostatic precipitators used in various industries.

Modern additive technologies, in particular selective laser melting, allow the creation of products with complex geometries and the required physical and mechanical characteristics. The quality of the final product is infl uenced by the composition of the gas environment in the working chamber of selective laser melting installations. The most critical factor is the oxidation of molten metal, which leads to the formation of shape defects and deterioration of the mechanical properties of the finished product. Existing standard monitoring systems based on remote sensors do not provide suffi cient information about the gas environment in the working chamber of the installations, for example, about local fl uctuations in its composition directly in the melt bath and the formation of gaseous oxidants – nitrogen oxides NOx and water vapour. A method for comprehensive monitoring of the gas environment has been proposed and experimentally validated, based on the detection of the total concentration of molecular oxygen, NOx and moisture indicators H2, NH3. The architecture of an information and measurement system for comprehensive monitoring of the gas environment has been developed. The system can be integrated into existing industrial equipment without any design changes. Experimental studies on EOS M 280 (Electro Optical Systems, Germany) and Farsoon FS 121M (Farsoon, China) technological machines have confi rmed the formation of NOx during the melting process and shown that the proposed method can provide more accurate information about the state of the atmosphere than standard systems. The developed information and measurement system for comprehensive monitoring is designed to prevent oxidative processes in the working chamber of a selective laser melting installation by means of multi-level control of the gas environment composition. Automatic gas supply control based on real-time multi-parameter analysis provides a more complete picture of the chemical composition of the environment and allows for an adequate response to oxidation risks, minimising defects and improving product quality.

The emergence of the United States as the leading global producer of oil and gas has driven increased interest in the greenhouse gas emissions from US energy supply chains. Methane emissions are a major portion of these greenhouse gas emissions, and the spatial and temporal patterns of methane emissions from oil and gas sources are complex. A wide variety of measurement and modeling approaches for estimating methane emissions from US oil and gas supply chains have emerged over the last decade, and this review summarizes their current status and prospects for improvement. Although no single measurement method or modeling approach will be successful in accurately characterizing all emissions, the integration of multi-scale measurement and modeling approaches can provide accurate and comprehensive estimates of emissions.

Abstract We present high-resolution (∼50–100 pc) Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array observations of 12 CO(2–1) or 12 CO(1–0) emission in seven local ( z ≲ 0.05) major mergers—five of which are dual active galactic nucleus (AGN) systems, and two of which are single AGN systems. We model the molecular gas kinematics through rotating disk profiles using a Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo approach. The residuals were then used to isolate nonrotating components of the molecular gas—the most likely contributor to future supermassive black hole (SMBH) growth. We find that more-massive SMBHs have higher surface densities of nonrotating molecular gas within their sphere of influence. This potential molecular gas supply, however, does not correlate with the current accretion efficiency of the SMBHs, suggesting that only a fraction of the observed nonrotating gas is currently reaching the SMBH. Finally, we tentatively find no significant differences in the nuclear molecular gas masses of single-AGN and dual-AGN hosts, both within the SMBH sphere of influence and within the central kiloparsec. Our results indicate that the probability of occurrence of the dual AGN phenomenon is likely dependent on AGN variability and/or obscuration rather than the availability of molecular gas in the nuclear regions.

This study aims to analyze the expansion strategy of the natural gas network (Jargas) for the household and small-customer segments implemented by PT Perusahaan Gas Negara (PGN) Tbk, Semarang Area, using the SWOT analysis method. The Jargas program represents a strategic form of business expansion that supports national energy efficiency and reduces dependence on LPG. This research employs a qualitative descriptive approach with data collection techniques comprising observation, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), and documentation. The findings indicate that PGN possesses several strengths, including a stable gas supply, competitive pricing, and the availability of a responsive operational support team. However, key weaknesses include the mandatory collection of customer interest, also referred to as the gas subscription request form or Formulir Registrasi Berlangganan Gas (FRGB) prior to construction, as well as reliance on the presence of anchor industries. Opportunities that can be leveraged include collaboration with local vendors, expansion into new areas, and high public interest in alternative energy. Meanwhile, threats faced by the company include the dominance of subsidized LPG 3 kg, limited pipeline infrastructure, and potential competitors. By understanding these factors, PGN can formulate more targeted, adaptive, and efficient expansion strategies to enhance the coverage of natural gas services for communities in the Semarang region