Flare Research Articles

Analysis of the Environmental and Safety Aspects of a Routine Utility Flare Using Computational Fluid Dynamics

The CFD code C3d was used to investigate the operation of a routine utility flare at low and high gas firing rates in an oil field in Iraq. This code was developed for the analysis of transient flares, enables the simulation of flare operation, and offers detailed estimates of the flame shape and the emissions produced. In this work, the numerical simulations included two flare gas rates, 9 t/h (2.5 kg/s) and 45 t/h (12.5 kg/s), under three crosswind conditions (4 m/s, 8 m/s, and 14 m/ s) and using three stack heights (35 m, 45 m, and 55 m). The results of this work provided insights into the flame shape and size, pollutant types and dispersion, and ground heat radiation levels from the flare. The safety analysis found that ground-level heat increased with higher flare gas rates and decreased with higher stack heights. The stack height of 55 m and the lower gas firing rate of 9 t/h were identified as the safest operating conditions, as they provided lower ground-level heat compared to the higher flare gas rate of 45 t/h. The heat radiation at a stack height of 55 m during normal firing rates remained below 1600 W/m2, which was within the safe continuous exposure limit for personnel not wearing protective clothing. This limit is in accordance with the recommended safety guidelines for personnel and equipment as outlined in API 521. Likewise, the environmental analysis showed that the plume size increased with increasing flare gas rate, while pollutant dispersion intensified with stronger crosswinds. When comparing the two gas firing rates, in the case of 9 t/h, there was a smaller plume and less pollutant dispersion, which illustrated a relatively lower impact on the environment.

Analysis of radiation shields for protecting polymeric patches in flare stacks

Analysis of radiation shields for protecting polymeric patches in flare stacks

Novel integrated process for simultaneous diesel and electricity production from flare gases: Environmental optimization and sustainability analysis

Novel integrated process for simultaneous diesel and electricity production from flare gases: Environmental optimization and sustainability analysis

The Impact of Air Borne Toxins from Gas Flaring on Cardiopulmonary and Other Systemic Functions

Gas flaring and illegal refining in Nigeria’s Niger Delta region contribute significantly to environmental pollution, public health crises, and economic losses. These activities release particulate matter (PM₂.₅, PM₁₀), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen oxides (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), heavy metals, and dioxins, which have been linked to cardiovascular diseases, respiratory disorders, neurological impairments, and adverse reproductive outcomes. Studies conducted in Rivers, Bayelsa, and Delta States reveal that pollutant levels exceed WHO-recommended safety limits by over 400%, correlating with increased risks of hypertension, myocardial infarction, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), neurotoxicity, and adverse pregnancy outcomes (Ehumadu, Uyigue, & Ndekwu, 2021). The economic burden of gas flaring is estimated at $7.4 billion annually due to healthcare costs, lost productivity, and environmental damage (World Bank, 2022). This paper integrates air quality data, pathophysiological mechanisms, and epidemiological evidence to assess health risks.

A Techno-Ecological Transformative Approach of Municipal Solid Waste Landfill in Upper-Middle-Income Countries Based on Energy Recovery

This paper presents several transformative scenarios of municipal solid waste landfilling sites from technical and ecological points of view, applicable to upper-middle-income countries, as per the classification of the World Bank. Our approach is based on numerical simulations of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2012 and 2025 and numerical simulations of methane emissions in a selected landfilling site, Oued Smar, in Algiers (Algerian capital city), according to the LandGem and IPCC models. Business-as-usual, landfill gas flaring, and electricity generation scenarios are considered in the numerical simulations. Finally, a novel metric dividing the recoverable electrical power by the amount of avoided greenhouse gas emissions is suggested. This paper reveals that the LandGem results were closer to reality and exhibited slightly higher values of energy recovery. A novel “techno-ecological” metric, computed as the ratio of energy recovery to avoided amounts of GHG emissions, was suggested for controlling landfill transformation. Accordingly, transitioning from uncontrolled landfilling to energy recovery could reduce GHG emissions by up to 99.87%, with a generated power of 0.89 W per ton of CO2-eq avoided by 2025.

A comprehensive global mapping of offshore lighting

Abstract. We present the first comprehensive multiyear global mapping of offshore lighting structures derived from low-light imaging satellite observations collected at night. The sensor is the day–night band (DNB) flown as part of the NASA/NOAA Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS). The product merges two operational nighttime light products: VIIRS boat detection (VBD) data and VIIRS cloud-free nighttime light (VNL) data. The two products are spatially complementary, making it possible to fill gaps through a merger. Both product sets have an average DNB radiance layer, and the merger involves preserving the higher of the two average radiances. A wide range of lighting structures is present, i.e., fishing grounds, platforms, anchorages, gas flares, transit routes, and the glow surrounding bright lighting onshore. The richness of the numbers and types of offshore lighting structures can be traced back to the DNB spike detector at the core of the VBD algorithm. The VNL algorithm uses outlier removal to filter out biomass burning, an essential process for mapping electric lighting onshore. The outlier removal drops about 80 % of the offshore lighting detections. We expect that the new product will lead to an improved understanding of fishing grounds, offshore light pollution, and supply chain disruptions at anchorages, thereby aiding in the development of more sustainable and efficient practices. The global datasets are available at https://doi.org/10.25676/11124/179157 (Elvidge et al., 2024).

Techno-economic and environmental assessment of an integrated ejector-based polygeneration system for producing LPG, C5+, and methanol from flare gas

Techno-economic and environmental assessment of an integrated ejector-based polygeneration system for producing LPG, C5+, and methanol from flare gas

Temporal Variations in Environmental Quality in Kokori-Erhoike Flow Station, Kokori Community, Delta State. Nigeria

The Niger Delta region of Nigeria, characterized by extensive oil and gas activities, frequently experiences gas flaring, a significant environmental concern. This study aims to investigate the temporal variations in environmental quality near the Kokori-Erhoike Flow Station in Kokori Community, Delta State, with a focus on assessing pollution levels in air, water, and soil. Samples were collected from various strategic locations around the flow station, including air, water, and soil samples. Samples were analyzed for a range of parameters including Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH), heavy metals (such as zinc, chromium, cadmium, lead, and copper), and physicochemical properties like pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), and electrical conductivity. The analytical methods employed included Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) for heavy metal analysis, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectometry (GC-MS) for TPH. Significant findings revealed elevated levels of PM10, and PM2.5 in the air, particularly during the June period, with PM2.5 concentrations exceeding WHO limits. Water sample analysis indicated high concentrations of TPH, especially in the June period, with levels rising from 1.67 mg/L to 2.91 mg/L at specific locations. Heavy metal contamination in water samples showed concentrations of lead (Pb) up to 0.54 mg/L and cadmium (Cd) up to 1.42 mg/L, surpassing WHO guidelines. Soil samples also exhibited high levels of heavy metals, with cadmium (Cd) concentrations up to 1.72 mg/kg and lead (Pb) concentrations up to 10.46 mg/kg. Pearson's correlation analysis highlighted strong positive correlations, such as between cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) (r = 0.876, p < 0.01), and zinc (Zn) and chromium (Cr) (r = 0.821, p < 0.01), suggesting common pollution sources, such as industrial discharges and agricultural runoff. The findings of this study indicate significant environmental degradation in the vicinity of the Kokori-Erhioke Flow Station due to gas flaring activities.

Application of Hazard Quotient (HQ) for Measuring Potential Health Risk of Surface Water Users in Douglas Creek

This study presents the application of hazard quotient (HQ) for measuring potential health risk of upstream and downstream surface water users in Douglas Creek in Qua Iboe Terminal in Ibeno L.G.A. Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. For calculating the HQ, 12 parameters, namely, Temperature, Turbidity, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), TDS, TSS, Nitrate, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cr, Cl and EC were considered. The HQ for temperature was 1.2 and 1.3, turbidity was 39.2 and 44.8, DO was 2.7 and 2.5, EC was 11.7 and 12.5, TDS was 14 and 15, TSS was 26 and 30.1, nitrate was 1 and 0.9, Cl was 17.3 and 19.8, Pb was 6.8 and 7.3, Cr recorded same as 0.02, nickel was 6.9 and 9.8 and Cu recorded same as 0.1 at the upstream and downstream surface water in Douglas Creek. The HQ of temperature, turbidity, DO, EC, TDS, TSS, Cl, Pb, and nickel in water samples were all greater than unity and thus posed a potential health risk for human oral consumption. The present study revealed that upstream and downstream surface water in Douglas Creek poses a health risk to surface water resource users due to surface water contamination with gas flaring. Regular monitoring of upstream and downstream in Douglas Creek is recommended as well as research by biomedical experts to reveal the rigorous adverse impacts that physio-chemical contamination of surface water might induce in humans, particularly among individuals in vulnerable populations. Also, the local authorities should be made aware of such health risks and provide potable water facilities either by treating the water or by finding alternative sources for drinking.

Impact of gas flaring on acute respiratory distress among pregnant women and newborn babies in Delta State Central Senatorial District, Nigeria

Introduction: Gas flaring is a vital environmental issue that has a negative influence on health of population that host natural gases and oil wells. Exacerbated risk of abnormal outcomes for pregnant women and newborn babies are of great concern in maternal and child health. The researchers aimed to examine how gas flaring impact acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS) in women that were pregnant and newborn babies. Materials and methods: A descriptive cross-sectional survey involving 483 pregnant women of reproductive age, antenatal caregivers and healthcare professionals at health facilities in Delta State Central Senatorial District. Using a multi-stage random sampling technique, a structured survey questionnaire was used to collect respondents’ RDS experiences and that of their new borne. Data were statistically analysed with the use of SPSS. Significant level was considered at P<0.05 Results: Among the 326 children recruited, 205 (42.4%) had experienced respiratory distress. Of the 483 women, 54% suffered from respiratory disease and 33% of the children had been admitted for respiratory distress on a weekly basis. While the age, educational level, gender, and marital status of women were not significant statistically with having children experiencing RDS, bearing children was statistically significant (P<0.001). Health professional reported that developing severe lung infection, release of black carbon and asthma sufferers were major risk factors to RDS. Conclusion: Findings showed that there was an increased prevalence of RDS among the study sub-population. RDS contributes more to cardiovascular disease and diabetes, hence it is important to address this public health issue

Life cycle assessment research and application in Nigeria

Abstract Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is becoming increasingly popular in developing countries, however, challenges such as lack of local data, spatial and temporal differentiation of impact categories, and uncertainty in the data and impact assessment methods remain. In this comprehensive review, we systematically conduct a literature review of LCA research in Nigeria, including a thorough assessment of the LCA studies according to ISO 14040 and 14044 standards. Methods A total of 30 peered reviewed and conference papers on LCA papers Nigeria as the study area of authors affiliated to institutions in the country were assessed. The assessment focused on functional unit, system boundary, data quality, allocation, impact assessment methods, database and LCA software used and interpretation methods. Results and discussion The results of the review showed that LCA is still in its infancy in Nigeria with 30 papers on the subject matter published between 2010–2023. These peer reviewed publications came from universities and research institutions, none from companies or government. In terms of the methodological choices, different functional units, system boundaries, impact assessment methods, allocation, data choices, databases and software were used. The Ecoinvent database is one of the most widely used for background data for potential environmental impacts while SimaPro and GaBi are the softwares of choice for most of the studies. Climate Change was the most assessed impact category at the midpoint level for life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). To ensure that uncertainties in LCA results are reduced, studies should ensure transparency in inventories, consider all the life cycle stages, use primary data and adapt local characterisation factors. Local impacts such as gas flaring, biodiversity, oil spills, soil erosion, and desertification should be the focus of LCA method developers in Nigeria as they are the prevailing environmental challenges affecting different parts of the country. Conclusions and recommendations Different methodological choices are used by researchers, they highlight a challenge that was noticeable in all the papers – a general lack of primary data. The studies are not equally distributed amongst the sectors of the economy. Most of them are concentrated in the agriculture, energy and transportation sectors. Based on our findings, the authors recommend the development of an LCI database for Nigeria and Nigeria-specific impact pathways, normalisation and weighting factors to enhance the reproducibility of the results. This study lays the foundation for the development of an integrated master plan for the development of LCA in Nigeria, with the potential to significantly contribute to improving environmental assessment and sustainable development.

Effects of Gas Flaring On Air and Groundwater Quality in Ebedei and Ashaka, Located in Ukwuani, Delta State, Nigeria

This research examines the effects of gas flaring on air and groundwater quality in Ebedei and Ashaka, located in Ukwuani, Delta State, Nigeria. Data on air pollutants, including sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and carbon dioxide (CO₂), as well as groundwater quality parameters, were collected during both the wet and dry seasons through systematic sampling techniques. The findings indicate that levels of SO₂ and NO₂ exceeded the permissible limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO), posing significant threats to air quality and public health. Conversely, CO₂ concentrations remained within acceptable ranges. Groundwater analysis revealed slightly acidic pH levels, elevated biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and high concentrations of iron, lead, and phosphates, all surpassing WHO standards and pointing to contamination caused by industrial emissions and acid rain. Statistical analyses demonstrated strong links between SO₂ and NO₂ emissions and groundwater quality, highlighting their harmful effects. Seasonal differences in pollutant levels were minor, suggesting that human activities are the primary source of pollution. The study emphasizes the urgent need for stricter environmental policies, effective pollution control measures, and ongoing monitoring to protect local communities and ecosystems.

Study on converting flare gas into usable energy at the SKIKDA gas refinery

This study investigates innovative technologies aimed at converting flare gas into valuable energy resources, with a specific focus on reducing flare gas emissions at the Skikda gas refinery. Various technologies and approaches are explored, including liquefied natural gas (LNG), compressed natural gas (CNG), and gas-to-liquid (GTL) technologies, all of which demonstrate potential for minimizing gas flaring in areas lacking traditional infrastructure. Of these methods, electricity generation through gas turbines stands out as the most commercially viable and economically attractive option. Using Aspen HYSYS, a steady-state process simulation software, the study conducts a detailed analysis of both the turboexpander process for Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) recovery and electricity generation. The findings reveal that converting flare gas into electricity by utilizing associated gas as fuel for turbines not only significantly reduces harmful emissions but also provides a substantial economic benefit. The most effective configuration identified is a system with two turbines operating in series, which, when utilizing 0.0889 m of interior diameter flare gas, yields the highest annual profit with a moderate capital investment. The results highlight the potential for sustainable energy production, emphasizing the feasibility of converting flare gas into electricity while addressing environmental concerns at gas refineries.

Systematic review on benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) emissions; health impact assessment; and detection techniques in oil and natural gas operations.

The ONG industry emits VOC such as BTEX, which pose health risks to workers. This study analyzed peer-reviewed research articles to provide BTEX emission profiles from three primary ONG operations and their associated health risks. PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews) was used to choose relevant articles for this review paper. The analysis revealed that in ONG operation, upstream operations involving gas flaring (benzene: 0.115 ± 0.1 ppmv, toluene: 0.029 ± 0.001 ppmv, ethylbenzene: 0.002 ± 0.001 ppmv, xylene: 0.123 ± 0.001 ppmv) contributed to relatively lower concentration of BTEX emission. Meanwhile, midstream operation involving tanker loading (benzene: 5.391 ± 28.670 ppmv, toluene:10.376 ± 48.929 ppmv, ethylbenzene:1.583 ± 6.563 ppmv, xylene:2.067 ± 9.211 ppmv) contributed to significant BTEX emission. On the other hand, downstream operations involving refinery operation zone (benzene: 3.5 ± 1.69 ppmv, toluene: 4 ± 0.87 ppmv, ethylbenzene: 1.2 ± 0.24 ppmv, xylene: 6.6 ± 1.34 ppmv) and refueling station (benzene: 1.164 ± 0.408 ppmv, toluene: 2.394 ± 1.086 ppmv, ethylbenzene: 1.301 ± 0.779 ppmv, xylene: 1.736 ± 0.898 ppmv) exhibited higher BTEX emissions. The Lifetime Cancer Risk (LCRi) for benzene was greater than 10-6 near gasoline pump stations (1400 × 10-6) and during loading operations (160 × 10-6). Ethylbenzene also had a significant LCRi value of 1000 × 10-6 during loading operations. Other ONG activities like gas flaring, inspection operations, and gasoline station pumps have hazard ratio value of > 1. The study highlights BTEX emissions in all three ONG sectors, with significant contributions from midstream tanker loading and downstream refinery and refueling stations. E-nose techniques are promising for BTEX detection due to their real-time measurement capabilities and ease of use. Some Asian countries have reported benzene concentrations exceeding permissible limits during tanker loading and refueling operations. Overall, BTEX emissions are a cause for concern and should be addressed in ONG operations.

Assessments of the impacts of environmental factors on vegetation cover at gas flaring sites in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.

The application of Satellite Earth Observation (EO) data provides the possibility of large scale mapping for the assessment of the effects of environmental factors on vegetation cover at the flaring sites. Twenty oneLandsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) data, and four Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager and Thermal Infrared Sensor (OLI-TIRS) data dated from 21/04/2000 to 05/02/2022 with < 3 % cloud cover were employed to study 11 gas flaring sites in Rivers State, Nigeria. MATLAB code was developed for data processing and analysis. Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI) was computed from the atmospherically corrected multispectral bands (1-4) for Landsat 7, and bands (2-5) for Landsat 8. Change in NDVI was computed as(δNDVI450-60)min the N, E, S and W directions which is the difference between NDVI at 450 m and 60 m distance from the flare stack. The available environmental factors (Facility size, flare stack height and time i.e. year, month and day) were applied to the (δNDVI450-60m) in the 4 cardinal directions. Pairwise linear and multiple regression statistical analyses were adopted to investigate the relationships between each of the (δNDVI450-60)mN, (δNDVI450-60)mE, (δNDVI450-60)mS and (δNDVI450-60)mW and facility size, stack height and time. The results show that only 12 % of the variance in (δNDVI450-60)mN is explained by the available data. Therefore, it can be concluded that the combination of the facility size, flare stack height and time accounted for only 12 % of the results.

Fine particulate matter from burning oil and gas and associated neurological symptoms among Deepwater Horizon oil spill cleanup workers.

Burning and flaring of oil and gas following the 2010 Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill generated high airborne concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Neurological effects of PM2.5 have been previously reported, but this relationship has received limited attention in the context of oil spills. We evaluated associations between burning-related PM2.5 and prevalence of self-reported neurological symptoms during, and 1-3 years after, the DWH disaster cleanup. For 9914 DWH disaster responders in the Gulf Long-term Follow-up Study who worked on the water, we examined aggregate outcomes (central nervous system [CNS; dizziness, sweating, palpitations, nausea, or migraine/severe headache] and peripheral nervous system [PNS; tingling/numbness in extremities, blurred vision, or stumbling] symptoms) and individual symptoms (CNS and PNS symptoms, plus insomnia, vomiting, seizures, and fatigue). We estimated PM2.5 concentrations via Gaussian plume dispersion models and linked these to detailed DWH cleanup work histories. We used log-binomial regression to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals, accounting for age, race, ethnicity, and sex, and DWH disaster-related co-exposures to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, and n-hexane (BTEX-H). We examined effect measure modification by age, race, smoking, and BTEX-H exposure. During the disaster, 34% of participants experienced at least one symptom (23% CNS, 12% PNS); 1-3 years later, 30% did (19% CNS, 17% PNS). Evidence of associations with PM2.5 was most consistent for CNS symptoms (PR range: 1.17 to 1.51), although we did not observe exposure-response trends. For PNS, PR ranged from 0.96 to 1.84. Associations with PM were more apparent among those with lower BTEX-H exposure and among older workers. We found some evidence of an association between burning-related PM2.5 and prevalence of neurologic symptoms during the DWH disaster response and 1-3 years later. Understanding these relationships can inform responses to future disasters to better protect human health.

Impact of Gas Flaring on Forced Vital Capacity, Body Mass Index and Biochemical Parameters: Evidence from a Nigerian Oil-Bearing Community

Impact of Gas Flaring on Forced Vital Capacity, Body Mass Index and Biochemical Parameters: Evidence from a Nigerian Oil-Bearing Community

Performance of flare gas ultrasonic flow measurement at high CO2 concentration flows

Performance of flare gas ultrasonic flow measurement at high CO2 concentration flows

Implementation of Latest Technology in Oil and Gas Industry Business Processes: Case Study of Production Processes in Upstream Oil and Gas with Zero Flaring Technology

This study aims to evaluate and implement the latest technology in reducing flare gas (Flare Gas Recovery) in the upstream oil and gas industry. Flare gases, which are often burned and released into the atmosphere, are a significant source of emissions and a contributor to warming. The results of the SWOT and AHP analysis show that the technology of converting flare gas into electrical energy has advantages compared to other technologies. From an economic perspective, calculations show that this project is very feasible to implement, with an NPV value of IDR 48.82 billion, an IRR of 23.03%, a BCR of 1.14, and a payback period of only 4.27 years. The LCC of IDR 400.37 billion and the CoE of IDR 285.98/kWh indicate that this project can keep energy production costs at a competitive and sustainable level. This study concludes that Flare Gas Recovery to Electricity technology is the optimal solution to support zero flaring initiatives and make a real contribution to reducing flare gas emissions, as well as providing high added value in terms of economy and environment.

Natural Environmental Contaminants and the Impact of Green Technologies on Climate Change

Environment has been defined as the natural world in which living things dwell and grow. There are certain factors which often pose challenges to the environment and are capable of interrupting capacity building as well as sustainability. This research evaluates such factors as environmental contaminants which include any chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter that hurts air, water, soil or living organisms. However, with the advancement of green technologies on the environment, there is a revolutionary change with regards to clean energy production, solar power, reduction of emissions of carbon dioxide, use of alternative fuels and other technologies that are less harmful to the environment than fossil fuels. This research focuses on clean energy production such as solar energy and other technologies that serve the best purpose of reducing emissions of carbon dioxide usually generated by vehicles, motorcycles and fuel power generators majorly in the cities, particularly in the industrial environments. These emissions from vehicle engines, power generators, gas flaring and other environmental contaminants are very dangerous to human health. Many, who have ingested these emissions, have serious interference with their bodies’ internal functioning, causing diseases like cancer, itching in the eyes and respiratory disorders like asthma. The pressing need to explore green technologies for sustainability becomes imperative and this gave rise to this research. To achieve this aim, this research adopts the doctrinal research methodology in examining the natural environmental contaminants and the impact of green technologies on climate change. On this premise, this research recommends tremendous exploration of green technologies as a recipe for a sustainable environment.