Gambling Outcomes Research Articles

Regional grey matter volume correlates of gambling disorder, gambling-related cognitive distortions, and emotion-driven impulsivity

ABSTRACTReports of regional grey matter volume (GMV) anomalies in patients with gambling disorder (PGD) are inconsistent, which can be attributed to methodological disparity and inattention to individual variability. Voxel-based morphometry was used to compare GMV between 25 PGD and 25 healthy controls. Additionally, the study explored associations of interpretative bias (IB, the tendency to reinterpret gambling outcomes) and negative urgency (NU, the tendency to act rashly under negative affect) with GMV in patients. These measures were chosen based on their sound association with gambling disorder in related studies. GMV tests were corrected across the whole brain (using a combination of voxel and cluster-level thresholds for a clusterwise-equivalent p ≤ 0.05). GMV was smaller in PGD than in controls in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. In PGD, a stronger cognitive distortion (higher IB) was associated with reduced GMV in the dorsal anterior cingulate; and patients with higher levels of impulsivity (higher NU) presented reduced GMV in the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. These findings are consistent with recent studies exploring individual differences in GD. However, the area discriminating between groups showed no overlap with the ones associated with IB and NU. These traits are thus unlikely to be responsible for between-group GMV differences.

Susceptibility to the gambling near-win effect in optimists versus pessimists: An event-related potential study

Near-win outcomes have a motivational effect on gambling behavior and are associated with gambling addiction. Information about the personality traits that determine susceptibility to the near-win effect is scare. Here, we assessed the event-related potentials (ERPs) and behavioral responses of 27 optimists and 25 pessimists following gambling outcomes in a modified slot-machine gambling task to examine whether optimists are more susceptible than pessimists to the near-win effect. The result showed that the mean amplitudes of analyzed ERPs elicited by near-win outcomes did not differ between the optimist and pessimist groups, but the groups exhibited different behavioral patterns in the task. The optimists tended to make risky bets following near-wins, whereas pessimists tend to be cautious. In addition, we observed a negative trend in the correlation between the probability of risky betting and the P300 amplitude difference between near-win and full-miss outcome trials in the pessimism group, but not in the optimism group. The present study revealed some potentially interesting differences in near win processing between the optimists and pessimists that may provide a foundation for future examination of individuals who are trait susceptible to the near-win effect and gambling addiction.

Distorted Beliefs about Luck and Skill and Their Relation to Gambling Problems and Gambling Behavior in Dutch Gamblers.

Gamblers’ cognitive distortions are thought to be an important mechanism involved in the development and maintenance of problem gambling. The Gambling Cognitions Inventory (GCI) evaluates two categories of distortions: beliefs that one is lucky (i.e., “Luck/Chance”) and beliefs that one has special gambling-related skills (i.e., “Skill/Attitude”). Prior psychometric evaluations of the GCI demonstrated the utility of both subscales as measures of distortions and their concurrent relations to gambling problems among Canadian gamblers. However, these associations have not yet been studied in gamblers from other cultures nor have relationships between the GCI and indices of gambling behavior been investigated. In addition, the predictive validity of the GCI scales have not been evaluated in studies to date. The present study investigated the validity of the GCI as a measure of cognitive distortions in a sample of 49 Dutch gamblers by examining its concurrent and prospective relationships to both gambling problems (as measured through a standardized nine-item questionnaire assessing gambling-related problems) and behaviors (as measured through two variables: days spent gambling and time spent gambling in minutes) at baseline and over 1-month and 6-month intervals. The GCI subscales were internally consistent at all timepoints, and moderately to strongly inter-correlated at all timepoints. Each subscale correlated with an independent dimension of gambling both concurrently and prospectively: Luck/Chance was related to greater gambling problems and Skill/Attitude was related to greater gambling behavior. Thus, the two GCI subscales, while inter-correlated, appear to be related to different gambling outcomes, at least among Dutch gamblers. Moreover, the first evidence of the predictive validity of the GCI scales was demonstrated over a 1-month and 6-month interval. It is recommended that both types of cognitive distortions be considered in research and clinical practice to fully understand and address individual risk for excessive and problematic gambling.

Gambling destinations and the effect of gambling results on tourist satisfaction and loyalty

ABSTRACTTourists visiting gambling destinations are likely to participate, to some or to a great extent, in gambling activities. Therefore, their gambling experience contributes to the evaluation of their experience at the destination. This study investigates the effect of gambling results on the overall satisfaction and loyalty of 7431 tourists visiting Macao by estimating a set of ordered probit models. The results indicate an asymmetric effect on the overall satisfaction: the negative effect of a losing outcome outweighs the positive effect of a winning outcome. Both winning and losing gambling outcomes have a positive and similar effect on the likelihood to recommend the destination, and the likelihood to revisit is affected in a positive way only by a winning outcome. The main determinants of tourist satisfaction and loyalty are further verified and the influence of tourist profile variables is also explored. Theoretical and managerial implications are outlined based on the results.

Does SMS improve gambling outcomes over and above access to other e-mental health supports? A feasibility study

ABSTRACTSMS is simple, inexpensive and a convenient method of delivering interventions to people with problem gambling, but there are currently no trials investigating its feasibility or impact. This study explores the feasibility of SMS for people with problem gambling accessing an e-mental health service (i.e. chat, email, forums and brief self-help). The study randomized 198 gamblers to bi-weekly SMS (versus treatment-as-usual [TAU]) over a 12-week period. SMS involved a series of behaviour change techniques as well as a call-back for further help. Recruitment and randomization workflow, SMS implementation and the impact of text messages on engagement at 12-week follow-up evaluation were also examined. Four out of five gamblers accessing e-mental health were willing to take part and very few withdrew from the study. Furthermore, 10% accessed the new outbound service (text for immediate HELP). There was a significant decrease in gambling symptoms and time and money spent post-treatment, but there was not a significant difference between SMS and TAU (i.e. SMS did not increase the effect of e-mental health). Gamblers accessed an average of 2.5 e-mental health offerings at their initial visit and it could be that this mixture of service supports more than met current needs.

Electrophysiological correlates of near outcome and outcome sequence processing in problem gamblers and controls.

The magnification of skill component in gambling as well as the gambler's and hot hand fallacies are gambling-related cognitive distortions. The magnification of skill component refers to the belief that one's ability can be used to win in gambling and that there is a reliable way to do so. The gambler's fallacy refers to the belief that a given outcome is unlikely to follow a preceding run of the same outcome (e.g. a coin coming up heads following a run of heads), while the hot hand fallacy refers to the belief that a streak of wins is going to continue. The biopsychological basis of these cognitive distortions can be analyzed by examining the processing of near outcomes and outcome sequences in gambling. Near outcomes refer to close wins and losses that would have almost resulted in the other outcome. The current study aims to investigate the electrophysiological basis of said cognitive distortions as well as its modulation by gambling problems. In the current study a group of problem gamblers and matched controls gambled on a wheel of fortune and a coin toss paradigm. The processing of near outcomes and outcome sequences was analyzed using event-related potentials (FRN, P300). Near outcomes evoked smaller P300 amplitudes in both groups. Furthermore, previous wins were associated with increased P300 amplitudes. Outcome closeness and previous outcome sequences did not modulate the FRN amplitude. The processing of near outcomes and outcome sequences was not modulated by gambling problems. General differences between problem gamblers and controls were found, with problem gamblers showing reduced peak-to-peak FRN amplitudes. This might point towards a generally more favorable evaluation of gambling outcomes in problem gamblers while the electrophysiological correlates of the analyzed cognitive distortions do not differ from those of healthy controls.

Effects of alcohol, initial gambling outcomes, impulsivity, and gambling cognitions on gambling behavior using a video poker task.

Drinking and gambling frequently co-occur, and concurrent gambling and drinking may lead to greater negative consequences than either behavior alone. Building on prior research on the effects of alcohol, initial gambling outcomes, impulsivity, and gambling cognitions on gambling behaviors using a chance-based (nonstrategic) slot-machine task, the current study explored the impact of these factors on a skill-based (strategic) video poker task. We anticipated larger average bets and greater gambling persistence under alcohol relative to placebo, and expected alcohol effects to be moderated by initial gambling outcomes, impulsivity, and gambling cognitions. Participants (N = 162; 25.9% female) were randomly assigned to alcohol (target BrAC = .08g%) or placebo and were given $10 to wager on a simulated video poker task, which was programmed to produce 1 of 3 initial outcomes (win, breakeven, or lose) before beginning a progressive loss schedule. Despite evidence for validity of the video poker task and alcohol administration paradigm, primary hypotheses were not supported. Individuals who received alcohol placed smaller wagers than participants in the placebo condition, though this effect was not statistically significant, and the direction of effects was reversed in at-risk gamblers (n = 41). These findings contradict prior research and suggest that alcohol effects on gambling behavior may differ by gambling type (nonstrategic vs. strategic games). Interventions that suggest alcohol is universally disinhibiting may be at odds with young adults' lived experience and thus be less effective than those that recognize the greater complexity of alcohol effects. (PsycINFO Database Record

Examining the effects of gambling-relevant cues on gambling outcome expectancies

There is a consensus in the addictions literature that exposure to addiction-relevant cues can precipitate a desire to engage, or actual engagement, in the addictive behaviour. Previous work has shown that exposure to gambling-relevant cues activates gamblers’ positive gambling outcome expectancies (i.e. their beliefs about the positive results of gambling). The current study examined the effects of a new, arguably more ecologically valid cue manipulation (i.e. exposure to a gambling lab environment vs. sterile lab environment) on 61 regular gamblers’ explicit and implicit gambling outcome expectancies. The authors first tested the internal consistency of their implicit reaction time measure of gambling outcome expectancies, the Affective Priming Task. Split-half reliabilities were satisfactory to high (.72 to .88), highlighting an advantage of this task over other characteristically unreliable implicit cognitive measures. Unexpectedly, no predicted between-lab condition differences emerged on most measures of interest, suggesting that peripheral environmental cues that are not the focus of deliberate attentional allocation may not activate positive outcome expectancies. However, there was some evidence that implicit negative gambling outcome expectancies were activated in the gambling lab environment. This latter finding holds clinical relevance as it suggests that presenting peripheral gambling-related cues while treating problem gamblers may facilitate processing of the negative consequences of gambling.

On the Counterfactual Nature of Gambling Near-misses: An Experimental Study.

Research on gambling near‐misses has shown that objectively equivalent outcomes can yield divergent emotional and motivational responses. The subjective processing of gambling outcomes is affected substantially by close but non‐obtained outcomes (i.e. counterfactuals). In the current paper, we investigate how different types of near‐misses influence self‐perceived luck and subsequent betting behavior in a wheel‐of‐fortune task. We investigate the counterfactual mechanism of these effects by testing the relationship with a second task measuring regret/relief processing. Across two experiments (Experiment 1, n = 51; Experiment 2, n = 104), we demonstrate that near‐wins (neutral outcomes that are close to a jackpot) decreased self‐perceived luck, whereas near‐losses (neutral outcomes that are close to a major penalty) increased luck ratings. The effects of near‐misses varied by near‐miss position (i.e. whether the spinner stopped just short of, or passed through, the counterfactual outcome), consistent with established distinctions between upward versus downward, and additive versus subtractive, counterfactual thinking. In Experiment 1, individuals who showed stronger counterfactual processing on the regret/relief task were more responsive to near‐wins and near‐losses on the wheel‐of‐fortune task. The effect of near‐miss position was attenuated when the anticipatory phase (i.e. the spin and deceleration) was removed in Experiment 2. Further differences were observed within the objective gains and losses, between “clear” and “narrow” outcomes. Taken together, these results help substantiate the counterfactual mechanism of near‐misses. © 2017 The Authors Journal of Behavioral Decision Making Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Disordered Gambling: The Effects of a Brief, Online Cognitive Intervention in an Australian Sample

Cognitive processes, in particular, erroneous beliefs surrounding gambling outcomes and abilities, are thought to play an important role in the development and maintenance of disordered gambling behaviours. The current study investigated the impact of erroneous gambling-related cognitions on gambling severity and intentions to gamble, trialling a brief, online cognitive intervention designed to reduce gambling-related cognitions and intentions to gamble. One hundred and twenty one participants were randomly allocated to either an educational intervention condition or an alternative intervention (control condition). Participants in the educational intervention condition showed larger reductions in gambling-related cognitions than did participants in the control condition. The educational intervention significantly reduced erroneous cognitions from pre to post treatment, with effectiveness of the intervention increasing in those exhibiting more severe gambling behaviours.

Independent Versus Co-occurring Substance Use in Relation to Gambling Outcomes in Older Adolescents and Young Adults

PurposeGambling is prevalent among college students and can be associated with significant negative consequences. Students who report gambling also tend to report use of alcohol and cannabis, but little research has explored the associated risks of using these substances in relation to gambling episodes. This study explored associations between the independent and co-occurring use of alcohol and cannabis before/during gambling episodes and gambling outcomes. MethodsStudents (n = 1,834) completed an online survey that included measures of gambling frequency, amount lost, negative gambling consequences, gambling problem severity, and substance use. ResultsAs hypothesized, individuals who reported using either alcohol or cannabis alone or both substances before/while gambling endorsed greater gambling quantity, frequency, negative consequences, and problem severity than individuals who used alcohol and cannabis in general but denied use of either substance before/while gambling. Use of both substances compared to use of alcohol alone was associated with greater gambling quantity, frequency, and negative consequences, although these groups did not differ on gambling problem severity. Cannabis use alone was no different on any outcome than use of both substances, and alcohol use alone was no different than cannabis use alone on any outcome. ConclusionsUse of cannabis alone before/while gambling may confer the same level of risk for negative gambling outcomes as use of both cannabis and alcohol. Prevention efforts may, therefore, benefit from targeting cannabis use in relation to gambling. Additional investigation is needed in light of recent and upcoming state legislation on the legalization of cannabis.

Motivation-Matched Approach to the Treatment of Problem Gambling: A Case Series Pilot Study

The aim of the present case series was to provide a preliminary assessment of the utility of a motivation-matched treatment for problem gamblers. On the basis of their primary underlying motivations for gambling, 6 problem gamblers received either action-motivated (n = 4) or escape-motivated (n = 2) treatment. Drawing upon a cognitive-behavioural framework, this 6-session motivation-matched treatment was designed to address gamblers' maladaptive motivations for gambling (i.e., the need or desire for "escape" or "action"), as well as the effects of conditioning and maladaptive thinking patterns unique to each gambling motive subtype. Assessments were conducted at pre-treatment, post-treatment, and 3- and 6-month follow-up. Primary outcome measures included gambling behaviour (i.e., gambling frequency, time, and money spent gambling), severity of gambling problems, and gambling-related impairment or disability; secondary outcome measures included gambling-related craving, gambling abstinence self-efficacy, positively and negatively reinforcing gambling situations, and gambling outcome expectancies. Overall, participants showed pre- to post-treatment improvements on the majority of these measures, with relatively less immediate post-treatment treatment gains observed on measures that assessed positively and negatively reinforcing gambling situations and gambling-related impairment or disability. However, treatment gains at the 3- and 6-month follow-up were shown for most participants on these latter measures as well. Findings suggest promise for this novel treatment approach. The next step in this line of research is to conduct a randomized, controlled trial to compare the efficacy of this motivation-matched treatment for disordered gambling with treatment as usual.

Online interventions for problem gamblers with and without co-occurring mental health symptoms: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundComorbidity between problem gambling and depression or anxiety is common. Further, the treatment needs of people with co-occurring gambling and mental health symptoms may be different from those of problem gamblers who do not have a co-occurring mental health concern. The current randomized controlled trial (RCT) will evaluate whether there is a benefit to providing access to mental health Internet interventions (G + MH intervention) in addition to an Internet intervention for problem gambling (G-only intervention) in participants with gambling problems who do or do not have co-occurring mental health symptoms.MethodsPotential participants will be screened using an online survey to identify participants meeting criteria for problem gambling. As part of the baseline screening process, measures of current depression and anxiety will be assessed. Eligible participants agreeing (N = 280) to take part in the study will be randomized to one of two versions of an online intervention for gamblers – an intervention that just targets gambling issues (G-only) versus a website that contains interventions for depression and anxiety in addition to an intervention for gamblers (G + MH). It is predicted that problem gamblers who do not have co-occurring mental health symptoms will display no significant difference between intervention conditions at a six-month follow-up. However, for those with co-occurring mental health symptoms, it is predicted that participants receiving access to the G + MH website will display significantly reduced gambling outcomes at six-month follow-up as compared to those provided with G-only website.DiscussionThe trial will produce information on the best means of providing online help to gamblers with and without co-occurring mental health symptoms.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT02800096; Registration date: June 14, 2016.

Gambling with Rose-Tinted Glasses on: Use of Emotion-Regulation Strategies Correlates with Dysfunctional Cognitions in Gambling Disorder Patients.

Background and aimsExisting research shows that gambling disorder patients (GDPs) process gambling outcomes abnormally when compared against healthy controls (HCs). These anomalies present the form of exaggerated or distorted beliefs regarding the expected utility of outcomes and one’s ability to predict or control gains and losses, as well as retrospective reinterpretations of what caused them. This study explores the possibility that the emotional regulation strategies GDPs use to cope with aversive events are linked to these cognitions.Methods41 GDPs and 45 HCs, matched in sociodemographic variables, were assessed in gambling severity, emotion-regulation strategies (cognitive emotion-regulation questionnaire, CERQ), and gambling-related cognitions (gambling-related cognitions scale, GRCS).ResultsGDPs showed higher scores in all gambling-related cognition dimensions. Regarding emotion regulation, GDPs were observed to use self-blame and catastrophizing, but also positive refocusing, more often than controls. Additionally, in GDPs, putatively adaptive CERQ strategies shared a significant portion of variance with South Oaks gambling screen severity and GRCS beliefs. Shared variability was mostly attributable to the roles of refocusing on planning and putting into perspective at positively predicting severity and the interpretative bias (GDPs propensity to reframe losses in a more benign way), respectively.Discussion and conclusionsResults show links between emotion-regulation strategies and problematic gambling-related behaviors and cognitions. The pattern of those links supports the idea that GDPs use emotion-regulation strategies, customarily regarded as adaptive, to cope with negative emotions, so that the motivational and cognitive processing of gambling outcomes becomes less effective in shaping gambling-related behavior.

Severity of gambling problems modulates autonomic reactions to near outcomes in gambling

Outcomes in gambling games cannot only be classified based on their valence (wins and misses) but also based on their closeness (near and full outcomes). The present study investigated autonomic responses (phasic heart period changes and skin conductance responses) to near and full outcomes on a wheel of fortune in a sample of males with different degrees of gambling problems. Near relative to full outcomes elicited increased interbeat intervals shortly after outcome presentation. Furthermore, participants with more severe gambling problems showed increased skin conductance responses following near relative to full outcomes as well as relatively smaller interbeat interval responses to near relative to full misses. The findings confirm different processing of near compared to full outcomes and altered processing of gambling outcomes with increasing severity of gambling problems.

Effects of Outcome Expectancies on Chinese Adolescents’ Gambling Intention

The effect of expectancy on adolescents’ intention to engage in risky behaviors has long been recognized, yet it is largely neglected in the gambling literature. Wong and Tsang (2012) recently sought to develop the Chinese Adolescent Gambling Expectancy Scale (CAGES) that could evaluate the strength of adolescents’ positive and negative expectancies of gambling. Five expectancy domains for gambling were identified. The present study aimed to examine the impact of gambling outcome expectancy on Chinese adolescents’ gambling intention. Survey data from 1,218 Chinese adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18 years were analyzed using regression analyses. Results showed that the five factors of gambling expectancy in a group were significant predictors of gambling intention. The model explained 18% of the variance in gambling intention. Among the five factors, social benefit was the strongest predictor of Chinese adolescents’ gambling intention. The current finding has important implications for prevention measures for adolescent gambling.

The development of regret and relief about the outcomes of risky decisions

Although a number of studies have examined the developmental emergence of counterfactual emotions of regret and relief, none of these has used tasks that resemble those used with adolescents and adults, which typically involve risky decision making. We examined the development of the counterfactual emotions of regret and relief in two experiments using a task in which children chose between one of two gambles that varied in risk. In regret trials they always received the best prize from that gamble but were then shown that they would have obtained a better prize had they chosen the alternative gamble, whereas in relief trials the other prize was worse. We compared two methods of measuring regret and relief based on children’s reported emotion on discovering the outcome of the alternative gamble: one in which children judged whether they now felt the same, happier, or sadder on seeing the other prize and one in which children made emotion ratings on a 7-point scale after the other prize was revealed. On both of these methods, we found that 6- and 7-year-olds’ and 8- and 9-year-olds’ emotions varied appropriately depending on whether the alternative outcome was better or worse than the prize they had actually obtained, although the former method was more sensitive. Our findings indicate that by at least 6 or 7years children experience the same sorts of counterfactual emotions as adults in risky decision-making tasks, and they also suggest that such emotions are best measured by asking children to make comparative emotion judgments.

Exposure to Gambling Advertisements and Gambling Behavior in Young People.

A cross-sectional survey of 4617 adolescents and young adults from 38 schools in two German states was conducted in 2014 to assess the association between gambling advertisements and gambling behavior. Exposure to ten gambling advertisements was measured with masked ad images; students indicated contact frequency and brand recall. Main outcomes were several gambling behaviors including probable pathological gambling assessed with the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS≥5). A total of 65.4% of the students reported gambling at least once in their life; 42.2% gambled in the last 12months; 6.9% gambled in the last week, and 2.8% reported probable pathological gambling. The average frequency that one of the selected ads had been seen at least once was 29.5%, the average brand recall rate was 9.4%. After adjustment for confounding, multilevel mixed-effects logistic regressions revealed that high gambling ad exposure was positively related to all assessed gambling outcomes, with the strongest association for weekly gambling. Future studies need to clarify the temporal sequence and specificity of these associations.

Decision-Making, Cognitive Distortions and Alcohol Use in Adolescent Problem and Non-problem Gamblers: An Experimental Study.

In the psychological literature, many studies have investigated the neuropsychological and behavioral changes that occur developmentally during adolescence. These studies have consistently observed a deficit in the decision-making ability of children and adolescents. This deficit has been ascribed to incomplete brain development. The same deficit has also been observed in adult problem and pathological gamblers. However, to date, no study has examined decision-making in adolescents with and without gambling problems. Furthermore, no study has ever examined associations between problem gambling, decision-making, cognitive distortions and alcohol use in youth. To address these issues, 104 male adolescents participated in this study. They were equally divided in two groups, problem gamblers and non-problem gamblers, based on South Oaks Gambling Screen Revised for Adolescents scores. All participants performed the Iowa gambling task and completed the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale and the alcohol use disorders identification test. Adolescent problem gamblers displayed impaired decision-making, reported high cognitive distortions, and had more problematic alcohol use compared to non-problem gamblers. Strong correlations between problem gambling, alcohol use, and cognitive distortions were observed. Decision-making correlated with interpretative bias. This study demonstrated that adolescent problem gamblers appear to have the same psychological profile as adult problem gamblers and that gambling involvement can negatively impact on decision-making ability that, in adolescence, is still developing. The correlations between interpretative bias and decision-making suggested that the beliefs in the ability to influence gambling outcomes may facilitate decision-making impairment.

The interaction of perceived control and Gambler's fallacy in risky decision making: An fMRI study.

Limited recent evidence implicates the anterior/posterior cingulate (ACC/PCC) and lateral prefrontal networks as the neural substrates of risky decision-making biases such as illusions of control (IoC) and gambler's fallacy (GF). However, investigation is lacking on the dynamic interactive effect of those biases during decision making. Employing a card-guessing game that independently manipulates trial-by-trial perceived control and gamble outcome among 29 healthy female participants, we observed both IoC- and GF-type behaviors, as well as an interactive effect of previous control and previous outcome, with GF-type behaviors only following computer-selected, but not self-selected, outcomes. Imaging results implicated the ACC and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in agency processing, and the cerebellum and right DLPFC in previous outcome processing, in accordance with past literature. Critically, the right inferior parietal lobule (IPL) exhibited significant betting-related activities to the interaction of previous control and previous outcome, showing more positive signals to previous computer-selected winning versus losing outcomes but the reverse pattern following self-selected outcomes, as well as responding to the interactive effect of control and outcome during feedback. Associations were also found between participants' behavioral sensitivity to the interactive effect of previous control and previous outcome, and right IPL signals, as well as its functional connectivity with neural networks implicated in agency and previous outcome processing. We propose that the right IPL provides the neural substrate for the interaction of perceived control and GF, through coordinating activities in the anterior and posterior cingulate cortices and working conjunctively with lateral PFC and other parietal networks.