Gain-framed Messages Research Articles

Framing energy-efficiency programs: A survey experiment

In the U.S., many low- and moderate-income households live in energy-inefficient homes and are burdened by energy bills. Although energy-efficiency home improvement programs are long-term solutions for home energy problems, the take-up of income-eligible energy-efficiency programs can be low. This study investigates how information framing affects low- and moderate-income individuals' willingness to participate in energy-efficiency programs in the U.S. as informed by prospect theory and regulatory focus theory. The author used a survey experiment to test how framing free energy-efficiency programs as helping homeowners avoid monetary losses versus framing programs as providing energy savings affects respondents' interest in program participation. Results from a national sample of homeowners pre-stratified by income (N = 1590) suggest that gain-framed messages are more effective in encouraging take-up willingness among moderate-income homeowners than loss-framed messages. At the same time, framing's effect on take-up willingness is statistically insignificant among low-income homeowners. Stress about paying energy bills also predicts willingness to take up energy-efficiency programs with statistical significance. This study contributes to helping policymakers customize information about energy-efficiency programs with different framings for individuals across the income strata.

Piloting Gain and Loss-Framed PrEP and Childbearing Messaging to Promote HIV Testing in Uganda: Perspectives from Couples and Providers

Fears of relationship dissolution and the inability to bear healthy children remain barriers to HIV testing in sub-Saharan Africa. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) carries both clinical and symbolic benefits that counter these fears. We conducted a pilot messaging intervention through Uganda’s assisted partner notification (APN) program, where providers assist HIV-positive index clients in notifying sexual partners and encourage testing. We randomized providers at three clinics to implement phone scripts over two months with (1) gain-framed or (2) loss-framed information about PrEP and childbearing; or (3) usual care. In 23 in-depth interviews with providers, index clients, and partners, five major themes emerged on intervention acceptability and feasibility: (1) value of PrEP and childbearing messaging in APN; (2) value of this messaging coming earlier in APN; (3) overall preference for gain-framed messages; (4) need to tailor timing of messaging; and (5) need for messaging outside of APN. Register data (109 index clients, 145 partners) indicated most index clients (95%) wanted their potential conception partners informed about PrEP. Preliminary trends suggest the intervention sites outperformed usual care in testing rates among potential conception partners. Messaging that highlights PrEP and safe childbearing may be a promising new communication strategy to promote HIV testing.

How do resource scarcity reminders influence consumers’ CSR engagement?

Purpose This study aims to understand consumers' reactions to hospitality corporate social responsibility (CSR) campaigns under different resource scarcity reminders, an important but overlooked contextual factor, and examine how such scarcity reminders interact with message framing, a widely used technique in CSR communication. Design/methodology/approach Three experimental studies were conducted. Studies 1 and 2 examined the main effect of resource scarcity reminders (environmental vs personal) on consumer engagement via self-other orientation. Study 3 further investigated the interactive effect between resource scarcity reminders (environmental vs personal) and message framing (gain vs loss) with hope as a key mediator. Findings Studies 1 and 2 show that environmental (vs personal) scarcity activates a more salient other orientation, subsequently increasing consumers' donation and word-of-mouth intentions. Study 3 reveals that environmental (vs personal) scarcity makes people more hopeful with gain-framed messages. Moreover, the elevated hope enhances perceived efficacy (attitude toward the company), leading to higher donation (word-of-mouth) intention. Practical implications Hospitality marketers could remind consumers of the harsh environment to elicit other orientation and encourage CSR participation. Using gain-framed messages or other hope-inducing appeals would be particularly advantageous in engaging consumers in CSR campaigns during heightened environmental scarcity. Originality/value Focusing on consumer responses to CSR campaigns, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, this research is the first to reveal reminders of resource scarcity as a novel antecedent factor and further uncover how such reminders interact with message framing to affect CSR engagement.

Application of Communication-Persuasion Theory in Destination Marketing in the Post-Pandemic Era

ABSTRACT This study aims to adopt McGuire’s communication-persuasion matrix as a theoretical lens for examining the effect of message appeal and message source on domestic tourists’ attitudes toward the message and the destination leading to their visit intention. Experimental design was applied in two studies. Study 1 examined the influences of tourist focused message appeal (self-benefit vs other-benefit) and destination focused message appeal (gain-framed vs loss-framed) on attitudes toward the message and the destination. Study 2 examined the effects of tourist focused message appeal (self-benefit vs other-benefit) and government information source (central government vs local government) on attitudes toward the message and the destination. Tourist self-benefit message appeal positively develops participants’ attitudes toward the message and the destination. Destination loss-framed message appeal has a stronger effect on participants’ attitudes toward the destination than the gain-framed message. Central government message source positively influences participants’ attitude toward the message. Finally, results show positive relationships among attitudes toward the message, the destination, and visit intention. Results also confirm attitude toward the destination mediates the relationship between attitude toward the message and visit intention. This study extends and broadens the knowledge of effective destination marketing communications in the post-pandemic era.

Promoting COVID-19 booster vaccines in Macao: A psychological reactance perspective

RationaleThe booster vaccine plays a key role in ending COVID-19 crisis. However, promoting COVID-19 booster vaccination often interferes with individuals’ freedom of choice and leads to psychological reactance. ObjectiveTo promote the public's intention to receive COVID-19 booster dose, this study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of different message designs from psychological reactance theory's perspective. MethodA 2 × 2 × 2 factorial experiment was conducted in Macao in January 2022 (N = 469). Partial least squares structural equation modeling and a complementary three-way ANOVA were performed to examine the effects of message frame (gain frame vs. loss frame), freedom restoration postscripts (present vs. absent), and other-referencing cues (present vs. absent) on reducing psychological reactance. ResultsThe present study has successfully broadened the scope of the psychological reactance theory by examining its applicability to the context of COVID-19 booster vaccination promotion. Our findings indicate that the gain-framed promotion messages tend to be the most effective in reducing perceived reactance. However, freedom restoration postscripts, other-referencing cues, and mixed message design were found to be ineffective in alleviating reactance. Besides, the insignificance of direct effect from message frame to intention suggests that the message design itself cannot influence people's vaccination intentions; rather, it must rely on reducing perceived threat, reactance, and further improving vaccination intentions. ConclusionsOur study offered valuable insights from psychological reactance perspective, identifying message features that can be effective in health promotions. Furthermore, message design specifically aimed at reducing the threat to freedom may yield unexpected persuasive effects, an aspect currently overlooked in health promotion strategies.

Gains and losses for humans and the environment: Effects of social identity and message prospect framing on pro‐environmental behaviors

AbstractAddressing the global climate emergency and an urgent need for psychological research, the present study drew on two major psychological perspectives: social identity theory's notion of a socially constructed sense of self, and prospect theory's cognitive heuristics on the asymmetric effects of gain and loss framed messaging. A 2 (Human vs. Environmental Identity) × 2 (Gain vs. Loss framing) factorial experiment (N = 160) sought causal evidence for superordinate identities, gain versus loss framed messaging, and their interactions upon motivations for pro‐environmental behavior. Results suggested interaction effects between social identity and message frames on activism, support for environmental policy, and enactment measures. Challenging prospect theory's original findings, gain framed messages were dominant in enhancing private sustainable behaviors, while loss frames were dominant in enhancing political behaviors. Whereas income was a significant demographic predictor, the overall social psychological findings inform campaign strategies for pro‐environmental behavior.

The effects of message framing on self-management behavior among people with type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial

BackgroundMessage framing describes how information is communicated and demonstrated to influence its effect on future attitudes and behaviors. Message content can be structured as ‘gain-framed’, emphasizing the benefits of engagement as recommended, whereas ‘loss-framed’ describes the negative consequences of not engaging as recommended. However, the impact of message framing on behavior change in people with chronic diseases like diabetes is not well understood. ObjectiveAnalyze the impact of message framing in diabetes education on self-management in people with type 2 diabetes, and identify potential moderating effects of patient activation on message framing. DesignA three-arm randomized controlled trial was performed. Setting(s)Participants were recruited from inpatients in the endocrine and metabolic unit of a university-affiliated hospital in Changchun. ParticipantsA total of 84 adults with type 2 diabetes were equally randomized into gain-, loss-, or no-message framing groups and received a 12-week intervention. MethodsBoth the message framing groups received 30 video messages. One group of participants received the gain-framed messages emphasizing desirable outcomes from effective diabetes self-care. The other group of participants received the loss-framed messages emphasizing the undesirable consequences of ineffective diabetes self-care. The control group received 30 videos about diabetes self-care without message framing. Self-management behavior, self-efficacy, patient activation, diabetes knowledge, attitudes, and quality of life were measured at baseline and 12 weeks. ResultsCompared with the control group, participants who watched either gain or loss-framed messages had significant increases in self-management behavior and quality of life after the intervention. The scores of self-efficacy, patient activation, knowledge, and attitudes of the loss-framing group were considerably higher than the control group. Further analysis revealed an interaction between patient activation and message framing (P = 0.002), with gain and loss message framing interventions more effective in increasing self-management behaviors in people with type 2 diabetes who had a higher and lower activation level, respectively. ConclusionsUsing message framing in diabetes education is a promising strategy to build and foster self-management behavior. It also suggests that appropriate message framing be chosen to enhance self-management behavior based on the level of patient activation. Registration numberChiCTR2100045772.

Nudging smokers away from lighting up: A meta-analysis of framing effect in current smokers

Should smoking cessation messages be framed in terms of gains or losses? While the risk-framing hypothesis suggests a persuasive advantage for gain-framed messages, empirical evidence so far has been mixed. In defense of the risk-framing hypothesis, researchers have suggested that the diversity of results in this literature stream can be attributed to differences in issue involvement. The present study examined these predictions by employing a meta-analysis (14 studies) comprising of a Correlated and Hierarchical Effects model with Robust Variance Estimation. There was a small persuasive advantage in favour of gain-framed messages (g = 0.104, SE = 0.049), but this contrast was not statistically significant (p = 0.070, CI95 = -0.011, 0.218). This finding is robust to the values of correlation between sampling errors of the effect sizes, influential outliers, and publication bias. Moreover, issue involvement proxied through nicotine dependence did not moderate the relative persuasiveness of gain and loss-framed messages in encouraging smoking cessation. The conclusion remains unchanged regardless of how nicotine dependence is measured and before and after controlling for study and participant characteristics. These results strongly cast doubt on the applicability of the risk-framing hypothesis that continues to guide research and public-health campaigns.

Bitter or sweet? The interactive impact of message framing and environmental attitude on the effectiveness of green advertising

ABSTRACT This study explores the external stimulus and internal psychological characteristics that influence green advertising’s effectiveness while considering the interactive effect of message framing and environmental attitudes and the mediating role of process fluency. The results showed that if a consumer has a strong environmental attitude, gain-framed green advertising more significantly impacts their attitudes toward green advertising and products and their pro-environmental behavior intentions than loss-framed advertising. Conversely, if the consumer has a weak environmental attitude, loss-framed green advertising more significantly impacts their attitudes toward green advertising and products than gain-framed messaging but does not affect their pro-environmental behavior. Additionally, it was found that process fluency mediates the interactive effect of message framing and environmental attitudes on the effectiveness of green advertising.

Comparative Evaluation of the Effect of Loss- and Gain-framed Tobacco Cessation Messages on Smoking Behavior: A Systematic Review

Abstract The current systematic review aimed to compare the available literature on the effect of loss-and gain-framed tobacco cessation messages on smokers. Databases such as Scopus, PubMed, Cochrane, Science Direct, Lilac, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched comprehensively from the earliest available date till May 31, 2023. Observational, prospective experimental studies, and randomized controlled trials were included in the review. Ten full-text articles fulfilled the eligibility criteria and were further processed for the data extraction. Gain-framed messages were preferred by majority of the study participants over loss-framed messages in motivating them to quit. Smokers have been exposed to loss-framed warning messages quite frequently (like on cigarette packets), and as a result, they may have learned everything there is to know about the potential harms of smoking, perhaps leading to wear-out effects. Gain-framed messages could be perceived as feeling fairly fresh, which lowers the risk of wear-out consequences. However, the outcome varied based on the moderators used in the studies. Based on the results, a strategic combination of gain-framed and loss-framed messages with appropriate moderators and long follow-up needs to be developed based on the study population for assessing the effectiveness of these messages on actual smoking behavior and habit cessation.

Effects of social norms and message framing on reducing the stigma of gynecological diseases: A cognitive-affective-behavioral model.

This paper presents an experiment exploring message strategies to reduce the stigma of gynecological diseases and promote women's sexual and reproductive health. Drawing on the cognitive-affective-behavioral model of stigma, we propose that social norms and message framing as two message strategies, respectively, address the cognitive and affective components of the stigma of gynecological diseases, which lead to desired changes in the help-seeking intention as the behavioral component. We conducted a 3 (no norm vs. descriptive norm vs. descriptive plus injunctive norms) by 2 (gain-framed vs. loss-framed) between-subject experiment (N = 202). The results reveal that messages with the combination of descriptive and injunctive norms reduce the greatest cognitive components of stigma. Gain-framed messages induced fewer affective components than loss-framed ones. The results suggest that changes in the cognitive and affective components of stigma may sequentially lead to favorable changes in the behavioral component. This study contributes to public understanding of the stigma of gynecological diseases by disentangling the various components and identifying the specific message strategies for stigma reduction.

Examining gain- and loss-framed messages in a novel breast cancer screening/cardiovascular context: Does framing matter?

Digital mammography can reveal not only breast cancer but also breast arterial calcification (BAC), which can indicate potential coronary artery disease. To explore ways to inform women of their BAC status in the context of a standard mammography results letter, we conducted a preliminary study comparing gain- and loss-framed messages to encourage follow-up cardiovascular care. U.S. women over age 40 with no heart disease history (N=227) were randomly assigned to view a mammography letter including BAC information in one of seven ways (three gain-framed messages, three loss-framed messages, one comparison message). Post-test measures indicated no significant differences on BAC knowledge, recall of test results and recommendations, perceived message effectiveness, or behavioral intentions for follow-up. Despite showing no significant differences between message conditions, results supported the messages' ability to clearly convey BAC information and encourage intention for follow-up cardiovascular care. This experimental study represents the first published report examining the inclusion of BAC screening results within the mammography letter. It also explored the use of message framing in a dual detection-prevention context and suggests that future work should test the effects of including both framing tactics in messages designed to target dual-focus contexts.

How Can Framed Mammography Screening Messages Be Optimally Persuasive for Foreign-Born Chinese American Women?

Foreign-born Chinese American women (FBCAW) have the lowest mammography rates compared with other racial groups despite the overwhelming evidence of the benefits of screening. Message framing based on the prospect theory has shown significant but inconsistent effects on mammogram screening among ethnic minority groups. Using data from a randomized controlled trial, this secondary analysis aims to identify factors that interact with message framing to improve mammography screening in FBCAW. In the parent study, participants were randomized to receive either a gain- or loss-framed brochure that encouraged mammography screening. Data were collected at baseline and 2 months using validated questionnaires. For this secondary analysis, ordinal logistic regression was performed to identify moderation effects using both per-protocol and intention-to-treat principles. Participants predominantly had low income, a low level of English proficiency, and no insurance. Lack of access to mammography services, knowledge of making a mammogram appointment, knowledge of insurance coverage for breast cancer treatment, education levels, and mammogram history were significant moderators of the framing effects. Overall, the moderation effects were larger when using per-protocol analysis. Some moderation results under intention-to-treat analysis were different from those using per-protocol analysis. The persuasive effects of the loss- or gain-framed messages depend on the characteristics of FBCAW. Future studies can identify algorithms to select tailored messages that match individual FBCAW's characteristics to optimize the effects of framed messages. Findings of this study can guide healthcare providers, especially nurses, to choose different wording when communicating with their clients.

Impact of Experienced Regret on Donation Willingness: Advertising Appeal and Framing Effect

Donors often experience donation regret caused by charity wrongdoings and mismanagement, which will reduce future donation willingness. The literature has not fully delineated the underlying mechanism of donors’ response to experienced regret. The effective advertising appeal and message framing which could be used to mitigate the detrimental impact of experienced donation regret also remain unknown. This research dissects the impact of experienced regret on donation willingness by revealing the mediational effect of anticipated regret and the moderating role of advertising appeal (altruistic vs. egoistic) and message framing (gain- vs. loss-framed). The findings of two studies demonstrate that experienced regret negatively influences donation willingness through anticipated regret. Compared with egoistic appeals, altruistic appeals are more effective in extenuating the impacts of experienced regret. Gain-framed (compared with loss-framed) messages better mitigate anticipated regret and result in a higher level of willingness to donate. In addition to theoretical contributions, actionable practical implications are discussed.

What makes a student feel vital? Links between teacher-student relatedness and teachers’ engaging messages

Recent studies suggest that teacher messages can affect students’ well-being. Using a multilevel, variable, and person-centred approach, this study aimed to identify profiles of students according to their teachers’ use of engaging messages and analyse the relation among these profiles and teacher-student relatedness and students’ subjective vitality. A total of 1209 students participated in the study. At the student-level, profile analysis indicated the existence of four different profiles: the few messages profile, the autonomous motivational appeals profile, the loss-framed messages profile, and the gain-framed messages profile. At the teacher level, profile analysis indicated the existence of two profiles: the variant and the invariant profiles. Results showed that overall, at both levels of analysis, teachers’ engaging messages related with teacher-student relatedness (either positively or negatively) with clear differences among profiles. Moreover, also at both levels of analysis, teacher-student relatedness related with students’ subjective vitality. Main findings and implications for practice are discussed.

Communication strategies: encouraging healthy diets for on-the-go consumption

PurposeUnhealthy (vice) on-the-go (OTG) dietary practices result in potentially serious health consequences. However, research on encouraging healthy eating intentions for OTG consumption is scarce. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating the role of message framing and source expertise in encouraging the healthy eating intention for OTG consumption.Design/methodology/approachTwo scenario-based experiments were conducted. Study 1 collected data from 136 Australian OTG consumers to examine the effectiveness of message framing (gain vs loss) in encouraging healthy OTG consumption. Study 2 collected data from 178 Australian OTG consumers to examine the interaction effects of message framing and source credibility on encouraging healthy OTG consumption.FindingsGain-framed messages were more effective than loss-framed messages in encouraging healthy eating for OTG consumption. This difference would be significant only if the gain-framed messages were from a high expert source rather than from a low expert source.Research limitations/implicationsThe study is a cross-sectional survey of Australian OTG consumers. Replicating this study in other countries may generalise the study’s findings.Practical implicationsPractically, this study provides insights to marketers and other relevant stakeholders to design effective advertising messages to encourage healthy eating for OTG consumption.Originality/valueThis is the pioneering study investigating the impact of message framing and source credibility in encouraging healthy eating for OTG consumption.

Travel shaming? Re-thinking travel decision making amid a global pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has placed the notion of “travel shaming” under the spotlight—tourists are concerned about being criticized for traveling during the pandemic. Yet the broader idea of travel-induced shaming, conceptualized as ethics-based evaluations in this paper, has not drawn much attention as consequence-based assessments in travel-related risk research. This paper presents two studies revealing a) how ethics- and consequence-based risk evaluations influence individuals' travel attitudes/intentions and b) how message framing about responsible travel affects travel shame and individuals' intentions to travel responsibly. Using structural equation modeling, Study 1 suggests that consequence- and ethics-based evaluations play key roles in predicting travelers’ attitudes/intentions to travel. Moreover, social trust and self-efficacy significantly affect both types of risk evaluations. Study 2 adopts an experimental design and shows that, compared with loss-framed and controlled message conditions, gain-framed messaging can reduce travel shame and encourage tourists to travel responsibly. Theoretical and practical implications were discussed.

Ex-ante reminders: The effect of messaging strategies on reducing non-sustainable consumption behaviors in access-based services

Users’ non-sustainable consumption behaviors are affecting the sustainability of access-based services (ABSs), but ABS firms can utilize messaging strategies (ex-ante reminders) to persuade users to curtail their non-sustainable consumption behaviors. Through two online scenario-based experiments in China, this study determined that: (1) Compared with rational appeal messaging, emotional appeal messaging is better able to persuade consumers to curtail non-sustainable consumption behaviors. Furthermore, loss-framed messages are more effective than gain-framed ones. (2) Message appeal and message framing have an interactive persuasive effect on reducing such consumer behaviors. Loss-framed rational appeal messages are more persuasive at reducing non-sustainable consumption behaviors than gain-framed rational appeal messages, and gain-framed emotional appeal messages persuade consumers to reduce non-sustainable consumption behaviors more than loss-framed ones. (3) Consumers’ psychological ownership moderates the persuasive effect of messaging. Among consumers with a high level of psychological ownership of shared goods, only gain-framed emotional appeal messaging is effective at reducing non-sustainable consumption behaviors, whereas among consumers with low psychological ownership, the persuasive effect of loss-framed rational appeal messaging is more effective than gain-framed emotional appeal messaging. This study extends the research on non-sustainable consumption behavior management in ABSs and provides important inspiration for the management of ABSs consumer behavior.

The Effects of Gain-Loss Framing and Message Sidedness on GMO Acceptance: The Mediating Role of Psychological Reactance

Misinformation about GMOs (genetically modified organisms) circulated on social media has negatively impacted people’s beliefs and behaviors. This study explores whether and how the information element of online news can improve public attitudes toward controversial issues such as GMOs. For this purpose, a 2 (gain vs. loss frames) x 2 (one-sided vs. two-sided messages) experimental design is adopted. The results of ANCOVA show that those exposed to two-sided messages showed greater levels of GMO acceptance compared with those exposed to one-sided messages. A significant interaction effect on GMO acceptance was also found, demonstrating that a two-sided message focusing on the gain frame showed the highest levels of GMO acceptance. In addition, the effects of message sidedness and gain-loss frames on GMO attitudes are mediated by psychological reactance. Specifically, two-sided messages, compared to one-sided messages, led to lower GMO risk perceptions and higher GMO acceptance by reducing psychological reactance. Furthermore, compared to loss-framed messages, gain-framed messages decreased GMO risk perceptions and increased GMO acceptance by lowering participants’ psychological reactance. These results can provide a deeper understanding of the mechanism by which news messages might influence individuals’ acceptance of scientific information through activating psychological reactance.

The Effects of Gain-Loss Framing and Message Sidedness on GMO Acceptance: The Mediating Role of Psychological Reactance

Misinformation about GMOs (genetically modified organisms) circulated on social media has negatively impacted people’s beliefs and behaviors. This study explores whether and how the information element of online news can improve public attitudes toward controversial issues such as GMOs. For this purpose, a 2 (gain vs. loss frames) x 2 (one-sided vs. two-sided messages) experimental design is adopted. The results of ANCOVA show that those exposed to two-sided messages showed greater levels of GMO acceptance compared with those exposed to one-sided messages. A significant interaction effect on GMO acceptance was also found, demonstrating that a two-sided message focusing on the gain frame showed the highest levels of GMO acceptance. In addition, the effects of message sidedness and gain-loss frames on GMO attitudes are mediated by psychological reactance. Specifically, two-sided messages, compared to one-sided messages, led to lower GMO risk perceptions and higher GMO acceptance by reducing psychological reactance. Furthermore, compared to loss-framed messages, gain-framed messages decreased GMO risk perceptions and increased GMO acceptance by lowering participants’ psychological reactance. These results can provide a deeper understanding of the mechanism by which news messages might influence individuals’ acceptance of scientific information through activating psychological reactance.