Cross-kingdom synthetic microbial consortium controls citrus Huanglongbing and root rot by modulating the rhizosphere microbiome and plant defense.

To assess and compare the time-dependent disinfection efficacy against standard microbial strains and the neutralization kinetics of two commercially available soft contact lens care systems, one based on 0.05% povidone iodine and one based on 3.42% hydrogen peroxide. To assess neutralization kinetics of each system, the concentration of the active disinfectants was quantified via iodometric titration (hydrogen peroxide) and high-performance liquid chromatography (povidone iodine) at intervals from 0.5min to the minimum recommended disinfection time (MRDT). Disinfecting efficacy against the five ISO 14729 microbial strains (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, Fusarium solani) was assessed at intervals from 0.5min to each system's respective MRDT. Microbial log reductions and disinfection rates were calculated using standard plate count methods. Statistical significance between systems was determined using ANOVA and post-hoc comparisons (p<0.05). The povidone iodine system reached a peak concentration (∼0.05%) within 2min, maintained this level for 5min, and was neutralized by 20min. Despite rapid neutralization, povidone iodine exceeded the standardized criteria for all strains within 1min and disinfected below the detectable limit within 5min. Conversely, the hydrogen peroxide system's concentration began declining immediately and fell below 1% within 30min, before disinfection was complete for three strains. Significant kinetic differences (p<0.05) favored povidone iodine across four strains, most notably against S. aureus, where hydrogen peroxide lagged by several hours. This study possesses a conflict of interest, and external validation is encouraged. The povidone iodine system achieved remarkably rapid disinfection across all strains at a 5000-fold lower molar concentration than the hydrogen peroxide system, well below the ocular irritation threshold. Povidone iodine's consistent, rapid disinfection, along with its high safety profile, suggests it may be a more optimal care option than the current gold standard.

Improper seed storage conditions, such as elevated temperature and moisture, accelerate ageing and compromise seed quality. However, the impacts of ageing on the seed microbiome and the resulting consequences for germination performance remain poorly understood. Here, we characterised how ageing soybean (Glycine max) seeds at 45 °C and 75% RH affects seed fungal communities, metabolism relevant to microbial growth, and sensitivity of germination to fungal challenge. Additionally, we assessed a role for endophytic bacteria in controlling pathogenic fungi. Amplicon sequencing revealed that ageing decreased fungal richness and reshaped community structure and composition of dominant taxa in seeds. Fusarium and Rhizopus isolates inhibited germination of non-aged seeds, whereas Sarocladium, Plectosphaerella, and Cladosporium impaired germination of aged seeds only. During imbibition, ageing increased seed metabolite leakage, including pinitol, glucose, and fructose, which promoted fungal growth in vitro. Among 39 endophytic bacteria previously isolated from soybean seeds, Bacillus toyonensis C55 and B. pumilus AM26 antagonised fungal growth, consistent with genomic regions associated with antifungal activity. Ageing oxidised the seed cellular redox state, and fungi tolerated oxidative growth conditions better than bacteria. In two cultivars, seed inoculation with B. toyonensis C55 increased germination, supporting a role in regulating fungal infections, whereas B. pumilus AM26 impaired germination. Notably, neither Bacillus strain affected germination of high-vigour non-aged seeds. Fluorescence in situ hybridisation microscopy revealed that both strains recolonised the seed endosphere following ageing. We conclude that oxidation during seed ageing contributes to increased sensitivity to fungal pathogens, which can be modulated by certain bacteria.

Tomato-derived extracellular vesicles selectively package antifungal defense proteins and significantly suppress fungal spore growth and germination, supporting their role as coordinated plant immune delivery systems. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are significant facilitators of plant-pathogen communication. However, their role as organized antifungal protein delivery systems is not fully understood. This study investigated whether tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) EVs have a unique set of antifungal proteins that helps prevent the growth of phytopathogenic fungi. EVs were extracted from mature tomato fruits and characterized using transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. They were then analyzed through LC-MS/MS-based proteomic profiling. We identified 133 high-confidence proteins in total; several are involved in defense mechanisms, including pathogenesis-related proteins, defensins, endochitinases, glucanases, osmotin-like proteins, and lipid transfer proteins. Proteins involved in quality control, vesicle trafficking, and metabolic regulation were also enriched. This suggests that EV cargo may participate in stress-responsive and defense-related processes. These functional categories are commonly associated with plant immune responses. Biological assays showed that the density and germination of Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, and Botrytis cinerea spores were reduced in a dose-dependent manner. These results bolster the hypothesis that tomato-derived EVs are enriched with antifungal-associated proteins and may serve as coordinated delivery vehicles in plant defense responses. Independent proteomic analysis of EV cargo may contribute to antifungal responses that are not apparent from total secretome analysis alone. The present research improves our understanding of how vesicles help plants fight disease and indicates how plant EVs could be used in long-term disease control strategies. Overall, these findings highlight the potential of plant-derived EVs as innovative, biologically driven tools for enhancing crop protection and developing sustainable antifungal strategies in agriculture.

In this study, a novel double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) mycovirus, tentatively designated Fusarium solani partitivirus 4 (FsPV4), was isolated from the Fusarium solani strain GF7, a phytopathogenic fungus responsible for tobacco root rot. The genome of FsPV4 consists of two dsRNA segments, referred to as dsRNA1 (2312bp in length) and dsRNA2 (2213bp in length). The dsRNA 1 and dsRNA 2 were predicted to encode an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and a coat protein (CP), respectively. Sequence analysis revealed that the RdRp of FsPV4 showed significant sequence similarity to the RdRps of partitiviruses, with Aplosporella javeedii partitivirus 1 being the best match (identity: 60.76%). Phylogenetic analysis of the RdRp showed that FsPV4 clustered robustly within the genus Betapartitivirus of the family Partitiviridae. This represents the first report of a betapartitivirus infecting F. solani, providing a potential candidate for the biological control of F. solani-mediated plant diseases.

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus Thunb.) and melon (Cucumis melo L.) are globally important horticultural crops, cultivated widely for their economic and dietary value. However, their productivity is increasingly threatened by Fusarium wilt, which causes substantial yield losses. The genus Fusarium comprises over 400 phylogenetically distinct species, classified into multiple species complexes (SCs). Many of these species are soilborne and resilient in agroecosystems, complicating accurate identification and disease management. While Fusarium oxysporum formae speciales-f. sp. niveum (FON) and f. sp. melonis (FOM)-have long been considered the main causal agents of Fusarium wilt in watermelon and melon, an increasing number of regional studies suggest that diverse Fusarium spp. may also be involved. In this study, we examined the diversity and pathogenicity of Fusarium spp. causing wilt in watermelon and melon across key cultivation regions in Korea. Thirty-three Fusarium isolates were initially identified using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing and further characterized through multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (EF-1α) and the RNA polymerase second largest subunit (RPB2) genes. The isolates were classified into five distinct SCs: F. oxysporum (FOSC), F. nisikadoi (FNSC), F. fujikuroi (FFSC), F. incarnatum-equiseti (FIESC), and F. solani (FSSC). Morphological and microscopic features were examined to support SC-level classification. Pathogenicity assays confirmed that representative isolates from each SC induced wilt symptoms in both watermelon and melon. These results broaden the understanding of Fusarium diversity in cucurbits and underscore the needs for phylogenetically informed diagnostics and disease management strategies.

Antibacterial resistance reduces the effectiveness of current therapies, necessitating the discovery of new bioactive compounds. This study isolated and characterised endophytic fungi from Solanum pseudocapsicum L. collected in West Sumatra, Indonesia, and evaluated their antibacterial potential. Eleven isolates were obtained, and ethyl acetate extracts from rice-based cultures were screened against Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA, and Escherichia coli. Two isolates showed the strongest activity: SPD3 inhibited S. aureus (18.68 ± 0.55 mm) and MRSA (18.17 ± 0.30 mm), while SPA3 inhibited E. coli (15.01 ± 0.45 mm). Phytochemical analysis indicated the presence of alkaloids, terpenoids, and steroids. Molecular identification classified SPD3 as Aspergillus fumigatus and SPA3 as Fusarium solani. LC-MS/MS analysis suggested that Fumigaclavine C and Cinchonidine were the major metabolites. Docking with PBP2a (4CJN) revealed that both compounds bind to the allosteric site (−5.14 and −5.00 kcal/mol), supporting an inhibition mechanism mediated through allosteric modulation rather than direct active-site interaction.

Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) is an aromatic-aliphatic copolyester widely used in packaging and consumer products. Its aromatic rings confer high resistance to hydrolysis, limiting biological degradation. To enhance PBAT biodegradation, we engineered Paracoccus denitrificans PD1222, a metabolically versatile and genetically tractable bacterium that can accumulate poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB). A novel plasmid (pV1) was constructed to express the broad-specificity cutinase FsCut under the constitutive Ptuf promoter and fused to the PorG signal peptide for extracellular secretion. Using an optimized transformation protocol, we stably transformed P. denitrificans PD1222 with pV1, enabling secretion of active FsCut and efficient PBAT hydrolysis. In degradation assays, the engineered strain exhibited significantly higher depolymerization rates than the strain carrying the pV0 vector, used as a control. Furthermore, the FsCut-expressing strain accumulated 1.16-fold more PHB than the pV0 strain and exhibited degradation rates of PBAT 2.27-fold higher in enriched medium and 1.9-fold higher in defined mineral medium. These findings demonstrate that targeted expression of a secreted cutinase substantially improves PBAT degradation by P. denitrificans, supporting its potential as a microbial platform for plastic bioremediation.IMPORTANCEThe widespread use of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) is limited by its low hydrolytic degradation rate, resulting from its aromatic structure, which makes it highly resistant to biological degradation. Developing strategies to accelerate PBAT depolymerization is critical for advancing sustainable plastic waste management. In this study, a novel plasmid, pV1, was successfully constructed to enable the heterologous expression and extracellular secretion of the broad-specificity cutinase FsCut in Paracoccus denitrificans PD1222. The engineered strain effectively hydrolyzes PBAT, demonstrating the plasmid's capability for correct synthesis and export of functional protein. Furthermore, the implementation of a newly developed bacterial transformation protocol in P. denitrificans represents a significant methodological advancement, reducing the time and complexity required compared with traditional conjugation approaches. Together, these findings highlight a dual achievement: improving the enzymatic degradation of a polymer with a low hydrolytic degradation rate and establishing an efficient genetic engineering strategy in a metabolically versatile bacterium, providing a promising platform for future bioremediation and biopolymer valorization studies.

Here we place a serious emerging disease of California processing tomato associated with the Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) in a taxonomic/clonal framework of global and historical FSSC-associated tomato disease. Standard FSSC sequence markers (tef1α, rDNA, and rpb2) resolved at least four closely related modern species as tomato pathogens globally: F. noneumartii, F. martii, F. falciforme, and F. solani-melongenae. Based on sequence analysis, somatic compatibility grouping, and inoculation studies, our work connects a single F. noneumartii clone in California (SCG FN-1) to modern California isolates (2017 to 2020) associated with serious symptoms (stem rot and vine decline) and impacts (fruit damage and loss). Historical (1996 to 2001) California tomato foot rot isolates from California are also FN-1 and show severe virulence and yield impacts similar to those of modern FN-1 isolates, indicating that this virulent pathogen was present at least 20 years prior to the modern severe outbreak. Discovery of a single moderately virulent California F. martii clone (SCG FM-1) marks the first connection between F. martii and plant disease. Clonally diverse F. falciforme isolates from California tomato, which did not cause severe symptoms, represent clonally diverse haplotypes/SCGs different from F. falciforme pathogens from Mexico and a putative Australia foot rot pathogen from 1982. Comparisons of tef1α sequences demonstrate that F. noneumartii and F. martii have multicontinental distributions associated with many plant hosts and show similarity between FN-1 and 2010 foot rot isolates from Japan. This clarification of global diversity, distribution, and biology of FSSC tomato pathogens provides a new framework for disease management and diagnosis.

The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, is one of the most notorious agricultural pests, but current control strategy via biological agents has focused on the nymphal and adult stages, limiting the establishment of a comprehensive management system covering the entire locust development stages. In this study, we isolated four fungi with distinct culture characteristics from the unhatched locust eggs. Through morphological and molecular biological identification, these fungi were identified as Actinomucor elegans W-1, Mucor circinelloides G-1, Fusarium solani W-1, and Aspergillus fumigatus GG-1. Koch's postulates provided the sufficiency of their infection capacity against locust eggs. Infection assays indicated that all four fungi exhibited high pathogenicity toward early-stage locust eggs, suppressing egg development even at low concentrations (103 spores mL-1). M. circinelloides G-1 exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect. Moreover, in comparison with the well-established locust biocontrol fungus Metarhizium acridum, these four fungi showed significantly weaker pathogenicity against nymphs, demonstrating egg-stage specificity. Furthermore, the four isolates showed production advantages over M. acridum. A. elegans W-1, and M. circinelloides G-1 exhibited optimal growth at 25 and 30 °C, and A. fumigatus GG-1 demonstrated a broader thermotolerance, high spore production, and good adaptability to different culture media, indicating the potential in industrial production. The discovery of these four pathogenic fungi suppressing locust egg development provides supplements for life-stage management of locust plagues. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Integrated genomic and phenotypic analysis of an endophytic bacterium reveals biocontrol and plant growth-promoting mechanisms

A self-assembled HDP-mimicking polypeptide micelle was developed for fungal keratitis treatment. The lead polylysine-b-polyleucine diblock polypeptide micelle showed potent activity against Fusarium solani, low cytotoxicity toward human corneal epithelial cells, and therapeutic efficacy comparable to voriconazole in vivo.

The present work focuses on the mycosynthesis, physicochemical profiling and biological evaluation of small-sized silver nanoparticles (ss-AgNPs) synthesized through a fungal-mediated green approach using endophytic Fusarium solani. The UV-Visible spectrum exhibited a distinct surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak at 499nm, indicating the successful reduction of Ag⁺ ions to Ag0, while XRD and TEM analyses revealed crystalline, spherical ss-AgNPs with an average particle size of 6.13nm and a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystalline structure. FTIR spectra indicated the contribution of biomolecules containing functional groups such as amine, hydroxyl and carbonyl groups as reducing and stabilizing agents. The zeta potential (- 6.9mV) suggests moderate colloidal stability. Biologically, the ss-AgNPs demonstrated broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, significant anti-biofilm inhibition (up to 73.53%), potent antioxidant potential (IC50 = 35.85µg/mL), and strong anti-inflammatory activity in protein denaturation (IC50 = 22.90µg/mL). The nanoparticles also exhibited marked cytotoxicity against A549 lung cancer cells (IC50 ≈ 25-50µg/mL) and moderate α-amylase inhibitory activity (IC50 = 93.82µg/mL), suggesting anti-diabetic potential. These findings confirm that fungal-mediated synthesis is a sustainable, eco-friendly, and efficient method for producing multifunctional ss-AgNPs with diverse biomedical applications in antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer therapeutics.

Fusarium fungi are known to infect table beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris) plants at various stages of development worldwide. Fusarium root rot, which develops post-harvest during long-term storage, is of particular economic significance. In Russia, there is no up-to-date information about the species diversity of pathogens causing this disease of table beets, which determined the purpose of this study. A total of 28 Fusarium isolates were collected from affected beet roots grown in the Moscow region of the Russian Federation from 2018 to 2023 years. Molecular phylogeny based on the TEF-1α and RPB2 genes in combination with morphological characterization showed that five Fusarium species were involved in the pathogenesis of Fusarium root rot of table beet during storage: F. acuminatum (43% of the total number of isolates), F. avenaceum, F. campestre (FTSC); F. sporotrichioides (FSAMSC) and F. solani (FSSC). At the same time, the species F. acuminatum, F. campestre, and F. sporotrichioides were first discovered on beet root in the Russian Federation. Temperature sensitivity of the identified species was studied at 5 °C and 25 °C. According to the value of the cold sensitivity index (CTI) on the nutrient medium and native substrate, the isolates were distributed differently: F. campestre (0.32) > F. acuminatum (0.22) > F. avenaceum (0.21) > F. sporotrichioides (0.19) > F. solani (0.20) and F. acuminatum (0.32) > F. campestre (0.21) > F. solani (0.03) > F. avenaceum and F. sporotrichioides (0.01), respectively. This confirms the need to study the pathogenic properties of isolates on a natural substrate (host plant) under different temperature conditions. When infected with the dominant and most aggressive species F. acuminatum, there was a high variation in the size of the affected area, depending on the genotype of the lines, under both temperature conditions (Va = 2-8 mm3 at 5 °C and Va = 31-1760 mm3 at 25 °C). Therefore, this species can be considered to be the most objective differentiating factor in assessing the resistance of table beet roots to fusarium rot, which determines the need to include it in the breeding process for creating resistant varieties and hybrids for the Central region of Russia. The data obtained in this study are of great importance for developing strategies for managing Fusarium fungi associated with Fusarium rot of beet-root during storage. The research results will also be relevant for other vegetable crops that remain fresh for long periods of time or undergo vernalization in the case of seed production at low temperatures.

Turtle egg fusariosis, caused by pathogens of the Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC), threatens turtle populations globally, through embryonic mortality and hatching failure. Host–associated microbiomes, including the bacteriome and mycobiome, are hypothesized to mediate disease outcomes in oviparous vertebrates, but this remains largely unexplored. Here, we characterised the inner–egg bacteriome and mycobiome of uninfected and FSSC–infected eggs at three developmental stages in the vulnerable yellow–spotted Amazon river turtle (Podocnemis unifilis). Lower mycobiome evenness was strongly associated with increased FSSC infection propensity and intensity. Regardless of infection status, higher microbial diversity positively correlated with hatching success, and hatched eggs showed more complex interkingdom interactions. We also identified bacterial and fungal genera whose relative abundance was negatively associated with FSSC infection. These findings support the hypothesis that the egg microbiome may influence infection and hatching outcomes, with implications for microbiome–informed conservation strategies for threatened turtle populations.

Root rot caused by Fusarium solani is a devastating disease in Angelica sinensis (danggui), leading to severe yield and quality losses. Sustainable control strategies are urgently needed. According to the plant "cry for help" theory, plants under pathogen attack may recruit beneficial microbes via root exudates. However, whether A. sinensis employs this strategy against F. solani remains unknown. This study aimed to identify potential "cry for help" metabolites and evaluate their biocontrol potential. LC-MS analysis revealed that F. solani infection significantly altered the metabolic profiles of both A. sinensis roots and rhizosphere soil. Comparative analysis identified seven metabolites specifically upregulated in infected plants but not detected in the pathogen, including taurine, oxoadipic acid, quinolinic acid, 6-phosphogluconic acid, methyl cinnamate, 2-phenylethanol, and (R)-3-hydroxybutyric acid. Exogenous application of these seven metabolites revealed that taurine and methyl cinnamate significantly alleviated disease symptoms, improved plant growth (root length, biomass), and enhanced the activities of key defense enzymes (peroxidase, POD, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, PAL, lipoxygenase, LOX, polyphenol oxidase, PPO). Furthermore, taurine and methyl cinnamate reshaped the rhizosphere microbiome. The incidence of root rot was reduced by 51.3% and 50.8%, respectively. Taurine enriched actinobacteria (e.g., Paeniglutamicibacter) and reduced the relative abundance of pathogenic Ascomycota fungi, while methyl cinnamate markedly enriched the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azotobacter and the saprophytic fungus Schizothecium. Crucially, both treatments significantly suppressed the proliferation of F. solani in the rhizosphere. Our findings demonstrate for the first time that A. sinensis activates a "cry for help" response upon attack by F. solani, with taurine and methyl cinnamate preliminarily identified as key signaling metabolites that can directly or indirectly inhibit the development of A. sinensis root rot. These compounds enhance plant resistance and recruit beneficial microorganisms, offering a novel and promising ecological strategy for the green control of A. sinensis root rot.

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) enhance plant fitness through nutrient mobilization, hormone modulation, and improved tolerance to abiotic stresses. Despite the ecological and agricultural importance of Opuntia ficus-indica, a drought-adapted cactus widely cultivated in arid and semiarid regions, little is known about its rhizosphere microbiota. This study aimed to select culturable rhizobacteria associated with O. ficus-indica, assessing their plant growth-promoting (PGP) traits and identifying strains with potential for improving crop performance under challenging environmental conditions. Bacterial strains from the rhizosphere of O. ficus-indica were isolated across three Moroccan regions with distinct rainfall regimes: Tafrant (humid), Fez (semiarid), and Chichaoua (arid). Seventy-seven strains were isolated and screened for their PGP traits, including phosphate solubilization, indole-3-acetic acid, siderophore, ammonia and HCN production, exopolysaccharide synthesis, in vitro nitrogen fixation, and antagonistic activity against Fusarium solani. Twenty-two high-performing isolates displaying superior PGP traits were selected. Molecular identification revealed taxonomic diversity across three bacterial groups: Gammaproteobacteria (Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, and Stenotrophomonas), Actinobacteria (Streptomyces, Arthrobacter, Kocuria, and Citricoccus), and Firmicutes (Bacillus, Peribacillus, Virgibacillus, Terribacillus, and Priestia). Isolates from semiarid and arid regions exhibited higher tolerance to drought-mimicking stress. Several isolates enhanced seed germination and seedling growth parameters in wheat, with the highest germination percentage induced by Peribacillus frigotolerans ZFSp2 and Pseudomonas moraviensis ZN17. Sorghum germination rate was highest in the presence of ZFSp2. These results highlight the rhizosphere of O. ficus-indica as a valuable reservoir of PGPR with strong potential for applications in sustainable agriculture, particularly in arid and semiarid regions.

Stem rot caused by Fusarium solani significantly threatens passion fruit production. However, the pathogenic mechanisms and host defenses remain unclear. We investigated hormonal dynamics, gene regulatory networks, and pathogenic factors during F. solani infection among resistant and susceptible passion fruit cultivars. The susceptible cultivar exhibited significantly higher levels of auxin (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA), salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and abscisic acid (ABA), accompanied by up-regulated expression of auxin biosynthesis (AMI1, AAO1) genes. The pink module in the weighted gene co-expression network analysis correlated strongly with JA, SA, ABA, and tryptophan; hub genes included IAA-amido synthetase and WRKY transcription factors. Enrichment of cell wall-degrading enzymes strongly correlated with SA, JA, ABA and tryptophan levels. Hence, F. solani may manipulate host hormone signaling and secrete pectin lyases to facilitate infection. This study provides insights into hormone-pathogen interactions, informing strategies for breeding disease-resistant passion fruit and developing environmentally friendly control measures. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Phytopathogenic fungi such as Fusarium solani (F. solani), Rhizoctonia solani (R. solani), and Botrytis cinerea (B. cinerea) cause plant diseases, leading to significant yield losses. Lipopeptides (LPs), secondary metabolites produced by Bacillus strains, exhibit antifungal properties against these pathogens. In this study, the LP production potential of Bacillus isolates was investigated, and the best-performing Bacillus sp. was selected for the optimization of the production medium and parameters. Hemolytic activities of Bacillus isolates were screened using blood agar, revealing that all 69 isolates exhibited hemolytic activity. The isolates were cultivated in Lysogeny Broth (LB) medium, and LP extractions were performed. The antifungal activity of LP extracts against F. solani, R. solani, and B. cinerea was assessed using the agar well diffusion method. The iturin and surfactin content of LP extracts was analyzed by quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Five Bacillus sp. with high LP production potential were selected, and their cell growth was examined. Among them, Bacillus subtilis 4-Ka-22 demonstrated the highest cell growth. The cost-effective optimized production medium was determined as 0.1% molasses, 1% soybean meal, 0.5% CaCl2, and 1% glycerol, with production parameters set at 30°C, 195 rpm, pH 5, and a 4.3% inoculum ratio. Compared to LB medium, cell growth increased by 13.4-fold, confirming successful optimization.

Laboratory-to-field evaluation of ZnO nanoparticles for management of Fusarium solani–associated tea dieback