Fusarium wilt: A comprehensive review of the biology, ecology, and management of the causal agent.

GABA-mediated and light-assisted synthesis of green GABA-SeNPs for microbial control and plant nano-primer

Fungicide resistance in Fusarium oxysporum: Advances in molecular, cellular, and metabolic mechanisms

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are valuable compounds in diverse microbial interactions with certain biotic stimuli, yet pivotal roles of any VOCs derived by the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe oryzae, in intra- and interspecies communications have been poorly understood. Therefore, in this study, we investigated that how certain VOCs by M. oryzae affect the fungal growth of the same species and other species. Using a partitioned I-plate assays, the result showed that pre-inoculated fungal colony (sender) significantly suppressed the late arriving colony (receiver) in a time- and mediadependent manner, suggesting that VOCs may function as self-inhibition agents in regulation of fungal growth. A total of eleven compounds were identified by the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, among which four VOCs (1-hexanol, 2-ethylhexanoyl chloride, 1-octen- 3-ol, and 3-octanol) exhibited strong self-inhibition effects. Further analysis revealed that the self-inhibition mediated by M. oryzae VOCs was enhanced under light conditions compared with darkness. Genetic approaches revealed that deletion of the MoCPKA and MoPMK1 genes reduced the self-inhibitory effects, suggesting that both genes are required for growth inhibition and that VOCs play a pivotal role in regulating turgor pressure generation and appressorium formation. In addition to self-inhibition effects, M. oryzae-mediated VOCs contributed to the interspecific antagonistic interactions with other fungal species (Aspergillus nidulans, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. conglutinans, and Sclerotinia sclerotioum). Our data clearly demonstrated that VOCs produced by the M. oryzae under light conditions are the key factors in enhancing growth inhibition both within a species (intraspecific) and among different species (interspecific).

Exploring the biocontrol efficacy and mechanistic basis of Trichoderma hamatum against tomato root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and associated fungal pathogens, Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani.

Fungal diseases seriously threaten global crop production, highlighting the need for fungicides with novel modes of action. Here, we show that shikonin exerts antifungal activity by targeting dihydroorotase (DHOase). Shikonin significantly inhibited mycelial growth, spore germination, and appressorium formation in representative phytopathogenic fungi in vitro. Biophysical analyses showed that shikonin directly binds to the DHOase of Magnaporthe oryzae (MoPyr4), with dissociation constants of 3.084, 1.22, and 1.26 μM determined by MST, SPR, and ITC, respectively. Molecular docking and mutagenesis identified R90, N178, and H320 as key binding residues. Consistently, deletion of MoPYR4 in M. oryzae reduced sensitivity to shikonin. In planta, shikonin restricted invasive hyphal growth in rice cells and showed both protective and curative activities against rice blast disease. Shikonin also bound to and inhibited the DHOases of Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium oxysporum, indicating broad-spectrum antifungal potential. These findings identify fungal DHOase as a promising target for fungicide development.

Beneficial microbes are increasingly applied as biocontrol agents to enhance soil vitality and crop productivity. However, given that alterations in soil conditions can propagate across trophic levels, it is essential to evaluate the broader ecological effects and biosafety of soil-applied microorganisms on higher trophic organisms. This study investigates the impact of two beneficial soil-applied microbes, Bacillus cereus and Chryseobacterium cucumeris, on the soil-borne plant pathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum, cucumber, the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae and its predator Phytoseiulus persimilis. Both bacterial agents were effective against F. oxysporum and demonstrated the ability to be transmitted across plant-herbivore-predator trophic levels. Notably, B. cereus was vertically transmitted from adults to eggs in P. persimilis, whereas C. cucumeris was only detected in the digestive tract. Bacillus cereus had no significant effects on fitness of both mite species. In contrast, C. cucumeris significantly reduced survival and reproduction of T. urticae and survival of P. persimilis adults, but not egg production. Greenhouse trials confirmed that soil application of C. cucumeris around the roots of cucumber, and subsequent uptake in the foliage could significantly suppress the survival and reproduction of both mite species. This study demonstrates that soil-introduced biocontrol microbes can transmit across trophic levels and may exert non-target effects on predators. The findings underscore the importance of considering indirect ecological risks and biosafety implications for beneficial invertebrates when deploying microbial biocontrol agents in integrated pest management systems. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Field-deployable LAMP assay for rapid and specific detection of Fusarium oxysporum causing corm rot in saffron.

Preparation of multi-enzyme cocktail from antagonistic Pleurotus ostreatus mycelia grown in broth containing dead fungal tissue and its potential application for isolating protoplast of filamentous fungi.

Fusarium oxysporum is a critically important pathogen with significant impacts on both agriculture and public health. In agriculture, it causes vascular wilt and root rot in numerous crops, resulting in substantial economic losses. This threat is compounded by the fungus's high genetic diversity, adaptability, and persistence in the environment, which make its control particularly challenging. In this study, we report a near telomere-to-telomere (T2T) genome assembly of Fusarium oxysporum strain Fo-129, a highly virulent strain causing tobacco root rot in China. It achieved a BUSCO completeness of 96.9%. The genome contains 24 identifiable telomeres, 9.40% repeat sequences, 15,102 protein-coding genes, 370 ncRNAs, and 538 candidate effector protein-coding genes. Additionally, 52 secondary metabolite gene clusters and 714 carbohydrate-active enzymes were also identified. This near T2T genome assembly of a pathogenic F. oxysporum strain provides a crucial genomic resource for advancing research into fungal pathogenicity, host adaptation, accessory chromosome evolution, and the molecular basis of host-pathogen interactions.

Fusarium wilt (FW), caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Fol), severely limits tomato production in Saudi Arabia, with few environmentally friendly control options available. To address this challenge, three-week soil solarization (Ss), a soil-applied mixture of Trichoderma asperellum strains (TASMix), and grafting onto the resistant rootstock 'Maxifort' (GP), applied alone or in dual and triple combinations, were evaluated as root-zone management practices against FW. The results showed that all treatments significantly reduced FW compared with the untreated control; however, the integrated treatment (GP + TASMix + Ss) provided superior disease control, reducing FW incidence by 37.2 and 68.9% and the disease severity index by 64.2 and 56.82% in greenhouse and field trials, respectively. Quantitative PCR analysis revealed a notable reduction in pathogen abundance in tomato roots and the rhizosphere with this treatment. Moreover, Trichoderma rhizosphere colonization was positively enhanced by Ss treatment. Infection of tomato plants with the pathogen alone results in significant root damage associated with elevated oxidative stress. Concurrently, the combined GP + TASMix + Ss treatment significantly reduced reactive oxygen species (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide), decreased lipid peroxidation, and elevated antioxidant enzyme activities in root tissues. The combined action of GP + TASMix + Ss also led to higher transcript abundances of key defense-related genes involved in jasmonic acid- and salicylic acid-mediated defense responses more efficiently than the other treatments. To our knowledge, this study provides the first evidence of the integrative efficacy of GP + TASMix + Ss for FW management, offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic fungicides in organic farming.

Tomato-derived extracellular vesicles selectively package antifungal defense proteins and significantly suppress fungal spore growth and germination, supporting their role as coordinated plant immune delivery systems. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are significant facilitators of plant-pathogen communication. However, their role as organized antifungal protein delivery systems is not fully understood. This study investigated whether tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) EVs have a unique set of antifungal proteins that helps prevent the growth of phytopathogenic fungi. EVs were extracted from mature tomato fruits and characterized using transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. They were then analyzed through LC-MS/MS-based proteomic profiling. We identified 133 high-confidence proteins in total; several are involved in defense mechanisms, including pathogenesis-related proteins, defensins, endochitinases, glucanases, osmotin-like proteins, and lipid transfer proteins. Proteins involved in quality control, vesicle trafficking, and metabolic regulation were also enriched. This suggests that EV cargo may participate in stress-responsive and defense-related processes. These functional categories are commonly associated with plant immune responses. Biological assays showed that the density and germination of Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, and Botrytis cinerea spores were reduced in a dose-dependent manner. These results bolster the hypothesis that tomato-derived EVs are enriched with antifungal-associated proteins and may serve as coordinated delivery vehicles in plant defense responses. Independent proteomic analysis of EV cargo may contribute to antifungal responses that are not apparent from total secretome analysis alone. The present research improves our understanding of how vesicles help plants fight disease and indicates how plant EVs could be used in long-term disease control strategies. Overall, these findings highlight the potential of plant-derived EVs as innovative, biologically driven tools for enhancing crop protection and developing sustainable antifungal strategies in agriculture.

Pesticides are essential for global food security, yet their low utilization efficiency and significant environmental footprint challenge the sustainability of agriculture. Here we present a green strategy to develop two leaf-adhesive nanodelivery systems that synergistically combine difenoconazole (DIF) and pyraclostrobin (PYR). A carrier-free nanoemulsion (DIF-PYR NE) uses eco-friendly surfactants via a solvent-free process, while a biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based nanosuspension (DIF-PYR NS) functions as a controlled-release carrier system. Both nanoformulations exhibit a uniform size, good dispersibility, and favorable environmental safety. We systematically investigated their interactions with plants (wetting behavior and foliar deposition) and with pathogenic fungi (bioactivity and controlled-release profiles) and further elucidated the underlying antifungal mechanisms. Compared with conventional formulations, they significantly enhance the control of Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum, and Fusarium graminearum; DIF-PYR NE acts as a rapid, broad-spectrum fungicide, whereas DIF-PYR NS provides sustained efficacy. This work established a versatile, efficient, and ecobenign nanopesticide platform for sustainable crop protection.

Fusarium oxysporum FO12 was originally isolated from cork oak (Quercus suber L.) and has been characterised as a highly effective biological control agent of wilt diseases on different crops. FO12 endophytically colonises roots and basal stems of plants, reducing the establishment of the soil-borne pathogen Verticillium dahliae and triggering plant defence-related genes. Here, we report a chromosome-level genome assembly of FO12 using Nanopore and Hi-C data. The 57.60 Mb assembly comprises 14 chromosome-scale scaffolds with centromeres resolved and telomeric repeats detected at 4 of 28 chromosome ends. This high-quality reference genome provides a valuable resource for further research into the use of FO12 in agriculture as a biocontrol agent.

Design and application of a FA-based molecularly imprinted sensor for screening anti-Fusariumoxysporum substances from Lanzhou lily endophytes.

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a valuable crop that suffers significant losses due to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lini (Foln) infections. Apocarotenoids, especially volatiles have recently attracted attention as potential regulators of plant defence, but their functions remain poorly understood. Ionones exhibited concentration-dependent effects: low doses induced defence-related responses, including H₂O₂ accumulation and upregulation of defence-associated genes, whereas higher concentrations were phytotoxic. Foln infection was associated with increased ionone levels in planta, suggesting their involvement in plant responses to pathogen challenge. CCD inhibitor treatments altered H₂O₂ levels, ionone accumulation, and infection dynamics. Notably, similar patterns of H₂O₂ and ionone responses were observed in plants treated with selected inhibitors (B2 and D1) and during Foln infection. Overall, our findings indicate that ionones are unlikely to be effective fungicides, as their phytotoxic effects outweigh their limited impact on Foln infection. However, they appear to be associated with modulation of ROS levels and plant responses to pathogen challenge. Changes observed following CCD inhibition further point to coordinated redox-related processes, although their precise role in plant-pathogen interactions remains to be clarified.

Fusarium wilt (FW), caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis (FOM), is a devastating disease severely impacting global melon (Cucumis melo L.) production. Biocontrol agents such as Trichoderma species, offer a sustainable alternative to chemical fungicides, yet their precise molecular mechanisms remain underexplored. In this study, we tested the antifungal efficacy of a commercial formulation combining two Trichoderma strains (Trichoderma asperellum ICC012 and Trichoderma gamsii ICC080) against FOM and investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the melon roots Trichoderma-induced responses. Through phenotypic screening, RNA sequencing, and a Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) we demonstrated that Trichoderma pre-treatment significantly mitigates FW symptoms and orchestrates a robust defense response in melon roots. Our analysis revealed specific transcriptional reprogramming, including the upregulation of key hub genes such as NAC domain-containing protein 2, dehydration-responsive element-binding protein 1A (DREB1A), trihelix transcription factor GT-3b, and a caffeoylshikimate esterase-like encoding gene involved in lignin biosynthesis. Furthermore, critical pathways significantly enriched in Trichoderma-treated roots included phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, MAPK signaling pathway, and plant-pathogen interaction, alongside defense-related processes like zeatin and tryptophan biosynthesis and ABC transporter activity. These molecular reconfigurations highlight the complex signaling networks activated by Trichoderma spp., leading to enhanced immunity against FOM. Our findings provide crucial molecular insights into Trichoderma-mediated biocontrol, elucidating specific genetic and metabolic modulations in melon roots. This research paves the way for targeted breeding strategies and advanced industrial applications of Trichoderma spp. for effective and sustainable management of Fusarium wilt in melon crops.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s44154-026-00315-3.

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus Thunb.) and melon (Cucumis melo L.) are globally important horticultural crops, cultivated widely for their economic and dietary value. However, their productivity is increasingly threatened by Fusarium wilt, which causes substantial yield losses. The genus Fusarium comprises over 400 phylogenetically distinct species, classified into multiple species complexes (SCs). Many of these species are soilborne and resilient in agroecosystems, complicating accurate identification and disease management. While Fusarium oxysporum formae speciales-f. sp. niveum (FON) and f. sp. melonis (FOM)-have long been considered the main causal agents of Fusarium wilt in watermelon and melon, an increasing number of regional studies suggest that diverse Fusarium spp. may also be involved. In this study, we examined the diversity and pathogenicity of Fusarium spp. causing wilt in watermelon and melon across key cultivation regions in Korea. Thirty-three Fusarium isolates were initially identified using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing and further characterized through multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (EF-1α) and the RNA polymerase second largest subunit (RPB2) genes. The isolates were classified into five distinct SCs: F. oxysporum (FOSC), F. nisikadoi (FNSC), F. fujikuroi (FFSC), F. incarnatum-equiseti (FIESC), and F. solani (FSSC). Morphological and microscopic features were examined to support SC-level classification. Pathogenicity assays confirmed that representative isolates from each SC induced wilt symptoms in both watermelon and melon. These results broaden the understanding of Fusarium diversity in cucurbits and underscore the needs for phylogenetically informed diagnostics and disease management strategies.

Two new polyketides polyketiliums A and B (1 and 2), together with ten known polyketides (3–12) were isolated from the mangrove endophytic fungus Penicillium sp. FDZ-018-102. Their chemical structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods. The absolute configurations of polyketilium B (2) was determined by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. All compounds were evaluated for their antifungal and antibacterial activities. The antifungal activity of compound 11 against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense was notable, with an EC50 value of 18.12 µg/mL, surpassing the efficacy of captan (EC50: 49.16 µg/mL) by more than twofold. Compound 11 showed equal MIC values of 32 μg/mL against both Staphylococcus epidermidis and Bacillus cereus, while compound 12 exhibited MIC values of 16 and 32 μg/mL, respectively.

Banana Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 (Foc TR4), poses a significant threat to global banana production; however, effective and sustainable control strategies remain limited. Extracellular self-DNA (esDNA), which functions as a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP), has recently been identified as a crucial regulator of plant innate immunity. Nonetheless, it is unclear whether the immune regulatory function of esDNA varies with disease progression. In this study, we examined the effects of esDNA derived from banana leaves exhibiting different disease severities on plant resistance to Fusarium wilt. Hydroponic experiments revealed that esDNA displayed a distinct disease-stage-dependent regulatory pattern. EsDNA from mildly diseased tissues significantly suppressed Foc TR4 colonization, supported plant growth, and mitigated oxidative damage, whereas esDNA from severely dise ased tissues lost protective effects and even intensified cellular stress. Physiological analyses indicated that beneficial esDNA effectively reduced H2O2 and malondialdehyde accumulation while enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities and phenylpropanoid metabolism. Transcriptome profiling further demonstrated that esDNA extensively altered pathogen-induced gene expression, with enrichment of pathways involved in metabolic and redox homeostasis. These transcriptional changes correlate with the observed reduction in oxidative damage and improved plant growth, suggesting that restoration of homeostasis may contribute to esDNA-mediated resistance. Our findings collectively demonstrate that esDNA serves as a dynamic DAMP signal, exhibiting effects that depend on the disease stage. This study offers new insights into the role of plant self-DNA in mediating immunity and presents a promising strategy for developing environmentally sustainable control measures against banana Fusarium wilt.