Fundamental Philosophical Questions Research Articles

How AI Systems Can Be Blameworthy

AI systems, like self-driving cars, healthcare robots, or Autonomous Weapon Systems, already play an increasingly important role in our lives and will do so to an even greater extent in the near future. This raises a fundamental philosophical question: who is morally responsible when such systems cause unjustified harm? In the paper, we argue for the admittedly surprising claim that some of these systems can themselves be morally responsible for their conduct in an important and everyday sense of the term—the attributability sense. More specifically, relying on work by Nomy Arpaly and Timothy Schroeder (In Praise of Desire, OUP 2014), we propose that the behavior of these systems can manifest their ‘quality of will’ and thus be regarded as something they can be blameworthy for. We develop this position in detail, justify some of its crucial presuppositions, and defend it against potential objections.

INFORMATION AND REALITY: PROBLEMS OF REFLECTION, PERCEPTION AND INTERPRETATION

The concept of information is related to fundamental philosophical questions: the relationship between being and thinking, truth and delusion, problems of communication in human society, problems of virtual reality, their connection with language, etc. The topic of information in its various aspects has recently become one of the most popular among scientists, publicists, journalists, and politicians. To date, there is a wide variety of definitions of the concept of “information”, however, there is no generally accepted understanding of the nature of information and the ways of its existence. On the basis of the semantic approach in the theory of information using semiotic methodology, the problem of the relationship and relationship between information and reality is considered; on this basis, the symbolic nature of information is analyzed, the problem of perception and interpretation of information by its recipients is investigated, the reasons and mechanisms of information distortion are analyzed. Information is considered as a sign, a representative of reality. There is always an uncertain, unstable, situational connection between signs and reality. There is a possibility of the existence of information in its pure form, without real events, which is not tied to real reality. Distortion is considered as a property of information; it is caused by the symbolic nature of information. The concept of “reality” is analyzed. Reality is largely a cultural construct, culture and society play a significant role in shaping perceptions of reality. Information becomes a model of reality, and at the same time information models reality. The concepts of “virtual reality” and “informational reality” are in use, which, in fact, are iconic constructions simulating reality.

Divine Causality and Human Free Will: Ṭūsī’s Solution and Its Historical Background

Abstract This article aims to delve into the approach of Ḫwāǧa Naṣīr ad-Dīn Ṭūsī to a fundamental philosophical question concerning human agency: How can human free will coexist with a necessitating causal framework, where every effect is bound by its complete cause? Ṭūsī’s solution, which left a lasting impact on subsequent philosophical discussions on the issue, particularly within Shiite scholarly circles, revolves around the introduction of a differentiation between types of causes. I will examine Ṭūsī’s elucidation delineated in two of his works: Ǧabr wa Qadar in Persian and a concise Arabic text on Afʿāl al-ʿibād. Additionally, I will endeavor to uncover the historical origins and intellectual influences that may have shaped Ṭūsī’s approach to the question of human free will.

Правові імперативи толерантизації суспільних відносин

The article defines the legal imperatives of tolerance of social relations. The problem of tolerance is connected with a number of fundamental philosophical and worldview questions that affect the understanding of man, his identity, civic position, the possibilities and limits of nation- and state-building, the democratization of social life, the dialogue of cultures and civilizations, and the search for a "sophia" discourse of tolerance. It was noted that tolerance is one of the values that is usually associated with the European style of legal thinking. Tolerance is not just a value that is given a legal meaning (that is, an end value), but a value that is legal in its content (that is, a means value). It is concluded that the tolerance of social relations is inextricably linked with the application of law, the forms of its implementation, the implementation of legal activities, as well as ensuring the rights and legitimate interests of a person. Ideally, the entire legal system should be based on tolerance, serve as a means of its expression, consolidation, protection and protection. Being introduced into the practice of implementing the current law, tolerance acquires legal features that determine its official level. Ukraine's aspiration to join international organizations should be based on the recognition of the main international legal documents, which enshrine the principle of tolerance.

The notion of sociocode in the conception by M.K.Petrov

Several fundamental philosophical questions — about the essence of man, his difference from animals, and the specifics of the perception and transfer of knowledge (information) — are discussed in the context of the semiotic-linguistic concept by famous Russian philosopher and culturologist M.K.Petrov. The author focuses on the concept of “sociocode” introduced by Petrov, which implies a relevant typology of culture today. The complexity of the task is that the work by the thinker is multifaceted, and in its different periods, we meet updated and conceptually enriched versions of this concept. In the article, in detail and consistently, based on the research of M.K.Petrov by domestic authors, his works, one way or another related to the topic of the sociocode, are considered. In this case, a special role is acquired by the themes of creativity, infancy, variations in the transmission of information through translation and transmutation, as well as human capabilities and the key role of organization and European sociality in the process of becoming typologically human, in contrast to the animal. The author comes to the conclusion that the concept of “sociocode”, as opposed to “biocode” (especially in its modern cybernetic interpretation of the latter), is a very effective theoretical tool for understanding the relevant issues generated by the situation in contemporary culture and society as a whole. It allows clarifying the origins of the “inconsistencies” that arise when cultural realities are transferred to a different cultural soill.

Апология человеческого бытия vs «идеальное человекоубийство»: антропологический проект С.Л. Франка

The emergence of S. L. Frank’s philosophy cannot be understood without clarifying his attitude to Immanuel Kant. Following the early representatives of the theory of cognition of his time who undertook to understand Kant in order to go beyond him (W. Windelband) and their warning against turning Kant’s philosophy into a dogma and allowing for diverse interpretations of Kant (P. Natorp), Frank saw Kant not as a critic and “destroyer” of metaphysics, but as a thinker who laid the foundations of a new metaphysical synthesis. He set himself the task of “transforming” the Kantian philosophy into a new metaphysical system proceeding from the foundational principles of critical thinking. As a result, he managed to overcome the abstract concept of the human being characteristic of Neo-Kantians to put the concrete human in the absolute horizon of being at the focus of philosophical investigations. In his metaphysics anthropology begins to play a system-forming and meaning-forming role, and onto-epistemological reasoning is used as a methodology for revealing the specificities of the human being. Here, too, Frank follows Kant who in his Logic defined the question “What is man?” as the fundamental question of philosophy. Frank’s three books, The Object of Knowledge (1915), Man’s Soul (1915), and The Spiritual Foundations of Society (1930) demonstrate that a metaphysical interpretation of Kantian critique is possible and may turn out to be the foundation of raising and solving topical philosophical problems.

ПРЕИМУЩЕСТВА И ПРОБЛЕМЫ ПРИМЕНЕНИЯ ИЗМЕРИТЕЛЬНЫХ СИСТЕМ НА ОСНОВЕ ИСКУССТВЕННОГО ИНТЕЛЛЕКТА

The development of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies opens up broad prospects for solving problems in areas that, until recently, seemed accessible only to humans. This trend is forcing a rethinking of fundamental philosophical questions about the material and the ideal. Improving AIbased measurement systems will lead to mass production of different types of such systems with relatively «weak» AI and with «strong» AI. Together these systems will create changes in society, but they will generate social problems. The article shows the effectiveness of measuring system application based on AI in manufacturing, medicine, transport, for assessing the quality of products and services, as well as determining human abilities, etc. Areas of activities are demonstrated that can accelerate the positive results of the new development stage, delay the emergence of related social problems, and facilitate their resolution.

Consideration of host nutritional status as a mitigating factor against current and future pandemics: a review of nutrient studies and experiences with infectious diseases including Covid-19

For over 3 years, the Covid-19 pandemic felt like a world war and has taken close to 7 million lives, disabled many more people, and caused innumerable economic losses around the globe. What can we learn from this tragedy? Are we ready for another Covid-19-like pandemic? Studies show that the majority of people with SARS-Cov-2 infection either show no symptoms or only mild to moderate clinical manifestations; only a small percentage develop severe Covid-19 disease, indicating that the clinical severity of Covid-19 disease is not determined only by the SARS-Cov-2 virus, but more importantly by how the host responds to the viral infection, what is known as natural immunity. Research of what enhances or weakens the natural immunity against viral infections and the practical application thereof is an important lesson one can learn from the pandemic. Research of natural immunity enhancing factors is summarized in this paper. One key characteristic of natural immunity against viral diseases is its non-specificity. The importance of this non-specificity helping to prevent and treat other infections of known or unknown viruses is also discussed. Calls for the clinical application of safe and inexpensive nutrients such as vitamin C in the prevention and treatment of Covid-19 have met significant resistance and objection from the medical authorities and the media since the pandemic outbreak. The main objection is the perceived lack of research and the absence of regulatory approvals. This raises a fundamental philosophical question: what is the primary goal of the medical profession? Facing a new viral pandemic like Covid-19 with no prior research, let alone any approved treatments, why is there opposition to known safe, inexpensive, widely available and often effective nutrients like vitamin C? Why are case reports and case series discounted or ignored rather than explored further to try to help more people? Is such objection protecting consumers or harming the public? Statistics show that viral epidemics and pandemics are occurring more frequently, with a recent review of epidemics and pandemics since 1600 concluding “ the yearly probability of occurrence of extreme epidemics can increase up to threefold in the coming decades.”1. When the next Covid-19-like pandemic of a new virus hits us, are we going to repeat the Covid-19 tragedy? Can improved emphasis on nutritional interventions to prepare for and respond to disease outbreaks mitigate future pandemics?

From the modern to the contemporary: Art, or the possibility of the impossible

This article asks the fundamental philosophical question concerning contemporary art: what is contemporary art? The distinction between modern and contemporary art is defined as internal to modern art, with the logic of rupture inherent to modernity. With modernity in art, three possibilities arise: constructivism, abstraction and non-art. After this, all contemporary art is either self-critical, formal or revolutionary. Through subtraction and formalization, contemporary art negates reality through local experiments that function at an abstract level of symbolization, making visible the real that is specific to every work of art and that creates a new place in the world. This experimentation effects a displacement within the sensible, creating a displacement between the possible and the impossible. Not unlike politics, art displaces a place in which it installs the formal promise of a new world. However, unlike politics, art provides a provisional respite through its ability to displace the laws of the world without ever promising to topple the world. Four maxims are proposed that define a contemporary meta-aesthetic ethos of anticipation that is not on the order of politics.

Privacy and Paternalism: The Ethics of Student Data Collection

Educational software is pervasive in contemporary high school classrooms, yet many students are unaware that learning platforms monitor their activities, reporting concerning documents and messages to school administrators and law enforcement. The scope of student data collection and analysis raises challenges for existing privacy laws like the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA). Developing new privacy policies for student data would require addressing fundamental philosophical questions about the autonomy and rights of children.

Trust, but Verify Comment on "'Part of the Solution': Food Corporation Strategies for Regulatory Capture and Legitimacy".

According to Lacy-Nichols and Williams, the food industry is increasingly forestalling regulation with incremental concessions and co-option of policy-making discourses and processes; bolstering their legitimacy via partnerships with credible stakeholders; and disarming critics by amending their product portfolios whilst maintaining high sales volumes and profits. Their assessment raises a number of fundamental philosophical questions that we must address in order to form an appropriate public health response: is it appropriate to treat every act of corporate citizenship with cynicism? If voluntary action leads to better health outcomes, does it matter whether profits are preserved? How should we balance any short-term benefits from industry-led reforms against the longer-term risk stemming from corporate capture of policy-making networks? I argue for a nuanced approach, focused on carefully defined health outcomes; allowing corporations the benefit of the doubt, but implementing robust binding measures the moment voluntary actions fail to meet independently set objectives.

THE PROBLEM OF A PRIORI IN FUNDAMENTAL ONTOLOGY: A PRIORI PERFECT AND THE EXISTENTIAL-TEMPORAL CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY

Based on the philosophy of Martin Heidegger the article presents the possibility of actualizing Heidegger’s main question about the meaning of Being in the context of the analysis of so-called “a priori perfect.” During the development of fundamental ontology in the second half of the 1920s, Heidegger ponders the approach to Being in the history of philosophy and identifies such a feature of Being as a priori, a kind of antecedence of Being in relation to being. Although tradition invariably understands Being in this way, in it, according to Heidegger, the question is no longer raised either about the sense of such antecedence, or about the temporal basis of this sense, and therefore a priori as the essential character of Being is left in total oblivion. We suggest that it is the problematization of apriority in its temporal origin that can contribute to resolving Heidegger’s fundamental philosophical question of time as the transcendental horizon of any concept of Being that precedes being. In this precedence there is a cherished temporal moment, the comprehension of which allows us to develop the “basic question of metaphysics” about the relationship of Being and time in a more concrete way than Heidegger’s four main themes of the question of Being: the ontological difference; the basic articulation of Being (essentia/existentia)); the truth-character of Being; the possible modifications of Being and the unity of Being’s variety. Revealing a priori question as the central question of all Heideggers thinking before the “Turn” we attempt to update this question and justify the need for its renewal on the basis of a fundamental ontology. With this task we relate the question of the essence of philosophy in general in its existential-temporal concept since philosophy appears as a temporality-based possible of the questioning return to the “earlier”: to the essential structures of being, knowledge, Being, Dasein. Our analysis is based on the following decisions: (1) Being in relation to being is always pre-understood as “earlier,” and in this understanding a temporal definition operates, hence the main question of fundamental ontology about the relation of Being and time can be developed or at least clarified through the problem of meaning of a priori. (2) The question of the meaning of the “earlier” and of the temporal basis for understanding Being as “earlier,” a priori, is concretized into the question of the conditions for the possibility of any ontology, including the fundamental ontology, which raises the question of the earlier in relation to Being and therefore “lives” in the light of the understanding of the “earlier” as such. (3) This reflexive foundation of the fundamental ontology from itself is a necessary stage on the way of developing its project, if we remember that the main “duty” of the philosopher is to clarify “our inner nature” for the sake of opening the boundaries and conditions of the possibility of philosophy. The conclusion is that the possibilities of fundamental ontology in making sense of Being, time, and philosophy in general are far from exhausted, but await the questions that actualize them and new readings that allow to see the hidden richness of Heidegger’s thought.

A Proustian Reading of Michel Onfray's Cosmos and Christian Signol's Les vrais bonheurs: "Privileged Moments" of Sensorial Ecstasy

This study probes the philosophical significance of the strange joy induced by a trigger sensation that immediately strikes the reader in Michel Onfray’s Cosmos and Christian Signol’s Les vrais bonheurs. Heavily influenced by Proust’s vision of involuntary memory, the role of the senses, and the nature of time in A la recherche du temps perdu, Onfray and Signol attempt to explore the essence of everything in the context of powerful, transformative sensorial encounters. Some critics automatically dismiss the rending ecstasy depicted by the Proustian narrator in the “petite madeleine” scene as nothing more than a form of whimsical artistry. However, Onfray and Signol’s rewriting of this renowned passage demonstrates that the notion of a privileged moment, associated with Proust in French literary circles, is an all-encompassing metaphor for delving into the most fundamental philosophical questions of all.

Schelling as a ‘Post-Heideggerian Thinker’

In this paper, I focus on Luigi Pareyson’s interpretation of Schelling, arguing that it must be read in continuity with Pareyson’s early engagement with the philosophies of Heidegger and Jaspers. Firstly, I argue that Pareyson shapes his existentialism on Jaspers’s and Heidegger’s thoughts, and particularly in relation to that which he considers the fundamental question of philosophy, namely ‘why is there Being rather than nothingness?’ Secondly, I demonstrate how Pareyson reads Schelling’s philosophy in light of his interpretations of Jaspers and Heidegger, i.e., in relation to the ‘fundamental question of philosophy’. Finally, I show how Pareyson’s reading of Schelling is centered on the notion of ‘awe of reason’, and how he defines Schelling as a ‘post-Heideggerian thinker’, since Heidegger’s philosophy allows us to innovatively reinterpret Schelling’s philosophy in an existentialist way.

From Voluntary Action’s Ontology to Historical Responsibility: Methodology of Philosophical Research

In the article, the author analyzes methodological approaches to the study of the concept of historical responsibility, comparing the German tradition of study (H. Arendt, T. Adorno) with the voluntary actions ontology of M.M. Bakhtin 's. The German tradition, influenced by the thinking of World War II, emphasizes the perception of responsibility in the context of the relationship with guilt, which raises a substantial question about the nature of responsibility and its boundaries. In particular, H. Arendt formulates the concept of banality of evil, focusing on the disappearance of internal perception of responsibility, but does not solve the question of the origins of such feeling. The Russian religious tradition, presented by M.M. Bakhtin, allows to propose a way to solve the issues raised due to the identification of ontological grounds of individual responsibility. Nevertheless, M.M. Bakhtin conclusions are also important for solving the problem of collective responsibility. Bakhtin addresses responsibility as an ontological characteristic of human existence, opposing its freedom. Responsibility manifests itself in acts, but ontologically precedes a separate action performed by a person. The role of the act is that it allows the person himself to understand the burden of responsibility and act on these prerequisites. The transfer of the Bakhtins methodology from individual to collective responsibility makes it possible to link the moment of its occurrence not to public recognition, but to the very fact of the individual 's entry into a certain community. The ontological integrity of the individual also acquires a social dimension, not only synchronic but also diachronic. According to the author, the application of the Bakhtins methodology in the field of social research makes it possible to consider problems of historical responsibility in the context of more fundamental philosophical questions about the relationship between individual and collective identity, the dynamics of identity, the combination of regularity and variability in human behavior.

Understanding the contributions of some Russian scientists to developing systems thinking and the theory of evolution

PurposeThis study aims to explain and illustrate the character of Russian systems thinking and to show how it is different and similar to traditions in the West. This study’s second aim is to describe the contributions of some Russian scientists to developing systems thinking and the theory of evolution. This study introduces the predecessors of Charles Darwin in Russia, both supporters and critics of his ideas, as well as scientists who have made similar contributions to the development of systems thinking, particularly Vladimir Vernadsky and Alexander Bogdanov.Design/methodology/approachPhilosophical and theoretical comparisons. In the Russian intellectual tradition, the terms “Russia” and the “West” are likely codes for signifying fundamental philosophical questions about the universality of thinking and culture. The term “West” means universal, rational truth without taking into consideration any differences in life and cultural practice. The term “Russia” means impossibility of such a universal truth and a necessity to look for solutions on the level of life, not only on the level of rational thinking.FindingsPaying attention to differences in approaches to systems and cybernetics and the theory of evolution will enrich the further development of systems sciences in Russia and the West. The paper examines the philosophical underpinnings of science rather than just testing or extending an existing theory. The result is better mutual understanding among scientists with different backgrounds.Originality/valueThis study suggests new avenues for research and expands the range of conceptual possibilities. It improves mutual understanding among scholars and countries. Also, it adds to the topics discussed within the field of systems and cybernetics and the theory of evolution.

Четыре стороны основного вопроса философии

Четыре стороны основного вопроса философии

¿Qué es el «hombre»? Una vindicación postmetafísica del sujeto

The eagerness of the human being to understand himself is at the base of all philosophical reflection. Through dialogue with authors such as Tugendhat, Heidegger, Sartre or Aristotle, in this paper the importance of the anthropological question is claimed as a fundamental philosophical question and the validity of an answer to this question is claimed: the one that finds the decisive aspect in freedom of the human condition.

Conceptual Schemes and Relativism

The idea of conceptual schemes is one of the most influential and widely used notions in contemporary philosophy. Within the analytic tradition the idea occupies a fundamental position in positivist views as well as in replacing them post-positivist conceptions. Outside the analytic tradition a similar idea is of key importance in structuralist and post-structuralist theories. Despite the broad applicability of the notion of a conceptual scheme, its precise sense is far from being evident in the context of various philosophical trends. Moreover, the well-known American philosopher Donald Davidson's position is that any clear, non-metaphorical meaning cannot be as - cribed to that notion at all – the statement which he tried to substantiate in his famous paper On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme published in 1974.The present paper is aimed, firstly, at outlining the historico-philosophical evolution of the idea of conceptual scheme, concentrating on its development in logical positivism and post-positivist theories of such philosophers as Quine, Sellars, Kuhn, et al., and, secondly, at examining Davidson's criticism of both the idea and the position of conceptual relativism which was raised on its ground, revealing the assumptions which that criticism relies on and which concern relations between language and thought, truth and translation, as well as the role of the scheme-content dualism for empiricism and the place of extensionalism in semantics, etc. Our purpose, on the one hand, is to evaluate the historico-philosophical significance of Davidson's criticism; on the other hand, it is to show that his critical arguments remain to be actual since they shed a new light on the idea of conceptual schemes and allow us to determine their place in tackling the fundamental philosophical question of a relation between reality, thought and language.

Digital Society - Opportunity or Threat? Case Studies of Japan and the Czech Republic

Digital technologies, autonomous systems, and artificial intelligence are seen as mater‑of‑course parts of the world today. Japan, as one of the leading countries in technological innovations, is the most advanced in terms of approach to digital society. Japanese society and government have been working on a new concept of life where all the digital technologies will communicate through the internet. Society organised in this way is called Society 5.0 – super Smart society. In Japan, this concept is centred about seventeen sustainable goals (United Nations, 2018). Society 5.0 is a reaction to the fundamental technological revolutionary changes known today as Industry 4.0. Thus, Society 5.0 is the consequence of a technological revolution that will eventually affect not just the production but all parts of today’s life as well. The new technologies evoke some fundamental philosophical and existential questions. How can technological advances improve the prosperity and functioning of society? What about the privacy and security of all the users? The present paper compares Japan and the Czech Republic from the perspective of digitalization of society based on three main aspects: government programs supporting digital technologies, number of technically educated experts and investments in science and research. The objective is to find out how much the Czech Republic has advanced towards preparations for digital society.