Fuel Supply Chain Research Articles

Life cycle-based multi-objective model for optimal gaseous fuel generation and portfolio allocation in gas grids: A strategic decarbonization

Biomethane and hydrogen are acknowledged as transformative opportunities for decarbonizing the conventional gas grid. Essential to this transformation is the modeling of the gaseous fuel supply chain, particularly with hydrogen and biomethane, offering crucial insights for decision-makers. This study introduces a life cycle thinking-based multi-objective optimization model for the integrated design of biomethane and hydrogen gaseous fuel supply chain networks. The model determines optimal resource allocation for the production of the two fuels, integrating them into the conventional gas network. Moreover, it allocates conventional natural gas, biomethane, and hydrogen optimally across building, industry, and transport sectors, considering the life cycle environmental and economic performance of fuel integration paths. Objective functions include minimization of life cycle emissions and levelized cost of energy while maximizing revenue from fuel sales. Integrating life cycle assessment and cost analysis tools, the optimization model quantifies emissions and life cycle costs for biomethane and hydrogen paths. Results identify Pareto-optimal fuel production paths and portfolios, revealing that integrating the alternative fuels into the current gas grid can significantly reduce emissions (up to 250 tonCO2eq/year) and generate substantial carbon tax savings (up to $16,250/year). This model is useful for gaseous fuel industry stakeholders, offering a comprehensive view of supply chain costs and detailed insights into emission benefits when integrating alternative fuels into existing gas networks.

How international conflicts and global crises can intertwine and affect the sources and levels of air pollution in urban areas.

This paper analyses the intertwined impacts of the 2018 US sanctions on Iran and the COVID-19 pandemic (as examples of unplanned international conflicts and global crises) on the source and extent of air pollution in Tehran, the capital of Iran. The impacts are parametrized using the levels of criteria air pollutants (CAP) for 5years (2015-2020), which were previously deweathered using the promising machine learning technique of Random Forest (RF). The absolute principal component scores-multiple linear regression (APCS-MLR) method and the bivariate polar plot (BPP) technique are used here to analyze the source apportionment profile of the city for the business as usual (BAU; 2015 to 2018), sanctions (2019), and COVID-19 and sanctions (2020) intervals. The results show the severe impact of the 2018 US sanctions on Tehran's air quality (AQ); O3, NO2, CO, PM2.5, and PM10 levels increased by 117%, 55%, 20%, 35%, and 10%, respectively, while SO2 levels decreased by 30%. The sanctions also triggered a number of events, such as the disruption of the high-grade fuel supply chain and the Mazut crisis, which directly or indirectly accelerated the photochemical production of local tropospheric ozone to some extent. Sanctions also disrupted Tehran's AQ response to the pandemic, with CAP levels decreasing by only 2-7% during the pandemic. The ozone and PM10 BPPs show that the source apportionment profile of the city is dominated by local anthropogenic emission sources, especially urban transport, after the sanctions and the pandemic. Results also show that the impact of soft wars, such as the US sanctions against Iran, on urban air quality degradation is much stronger than that of hard wars, such as the Russia-Ukraine war.

Spatially Varying Costs of GHG Abatement with Alternative Cellulosic Feedstocks for Sustainable Aviation Fuels.

Cellulosic biomass-based sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) can be produced from various feedstocks. The breakeven price and carbon intensity of these feedstock-to-SAF pathways are likely to differ across feedstocks and across spatial locations due to differences in feedstock attributes, productivity, opportunity costs of land for feedstock production, soil carbon effects, and feedstock composition. We integrate feedstock to fuel supply chain economics and life-cycle carbon accounting using the same system boundary to quantify and compare the spatially varying greenhouse gas (GHG) intensities and costs of GHG abatement with SAFs derived from four feedstocks (switchgrass, miscanthus, energy sorghum, and corn stover) at 4 km resolution across the U.S. rainfed region. We show that the optimal feedstock for each location differs depending on whether the incentive is to lower breakeven price, carbon intensity, or cost of carbon abatement with biomass or to have high biomass production per unit land. The cost of abating GHG emissions with SAF ranges from $181 Mg-1 CO2e to more than $444 Mg-1 CO2e and is lowest with miscanthus in the Midwest, switchgrass in the south, and energy sorghum in a relatively small region in the Great Plains. While corn stover-based SAF has the lowest breakeven price per gallon, it has the highest cost of abatement due to its relatively high GHG intensity. Our findings imply that different types of policies, such as volumetric targets, tax credits, and low carbon fuel standards, will differ in the mix of feedstocks they incentivize and locations where they are produced in the U.S. rainfed region.

Economic impacts of power-to-liquid fuels in aviation: A general equilibrium analysis of production and utilization in Germany

The aviation industry faces an urgent need to adopt sustainable aviation fuels for significant decarbonization. Power-to-Liquid (PtL) fuel is considered a potential game changer, but questions remain about the wider economic impacts of introducing PtL fuel in the aviation sector. This paper examines the economic impacts of introducing PtL fuel blending quotas along with a price policy consisting of a kerosene tax and PtL fuel subsidies for the case of Germany. Based on a detailed supply chain analysis, we apply a social accounting matrix and a computable general equilibrium model to take into account both, the production and utilization perspectives of PtL jet fuel. Our results show that the influence of low blending quotas is mainly limited to the aviation sector, with a 10 % blending quota increasing consumer prices by 7.9 % and reducing aviation industry output by 3.1 %. When quota levels increase, however, the effects go beyond the air transport system. On inter-sectoral level, we identify three main patterns: First, industries that substantially contribute to the PtL fuel supply chain, such as metal products and electrical equipment, see increasing levels in both, domestic production, and imports. Second, aviation upstream industries like transport infrastructure and aircraft production see reduced domestic production and imports. Third, aviation downstream industries, such as delivery services and travel agencies, see substitution effects, where imports partly replace domestic output. Macroeconomic indicators are affected negatively by the quota scenarios, but the relative impact is low as the maximum decrease in the gross domestic product (GDP) does not exceed 0.35 %. PtL fuel production subsidies can largely mitigate the decrease in aviation demand but come at the cost of a stronger reduction in the GDP and government income. Moreover, the sensitivity analysis emphasizes that various assumptions and parameters, such as the cost projections of PtL fuel, import options, and elasticities of demand, affect the intensity of economic consequences. Our analysis implies the trade-offs of policymaking between sectoral and macroeconomic interests in the context of sustainable fuels. The main contribution of this study is the investigation of the broader economic effects resulting from the adoption of PtL fuels in aviation. In particular, the production as well as the utilization perspective are considered simultaneously in this study.

An optimization-based design methodology to manage the sustainable biomass-to-biodiesel supply chain under disruptions: A case study

The detrimental effects of excessive fossil fuel consumption have recently become a major global concern. Moreover, fuel supply chains are vulnerable to disruptive and operational risks. This study proposes a robust-stochastic approach to design a resilient sustainable biodiesel supply chain from Jatropha and waste cooking oil, while facilities and transportation links are vulnerable to multiple site-dependent disruptions. The main contributions are implementing preventive resiliency strategies to manage risks, integrating sustainability and resiliency, and selecting biodiesel conversion technology based on byproducts’ demands. Herein, candidate locations are identified to cultivate Jatropha using the best-worst method and geographical information system. Moreover, the supply chain network is designed to optimize economic performance, network non-resiliency, and social impacts. The Monte Carlo simulation approach, k-means clustering, augmented epsilon constraint, and Mulvey robust optimization are adopted to generate and reduce probable scenarios, manage multiple objectives, and handle uncertainty, respectively. The results showed that the non-resilient supply chain experiences a 20.11 % additional cost in disruption scenarios; however, even with a higher initial cost, adopting resiliency strategies reduces disruption cost effects by 9.46 %. Managerial insights have demonstrated that resilience and sustainability are positively correlated in biofuel supply chain management, and rising biodiesel demand enhances social welfare and economic performance.

Risk Management for the Petrodiesel-Biodiesel Fuel Blend Supply Chain in Indonesia

This research addresses the management of risks within inter-business unit networks, focusing on two key levels of risk mitigation: strategic and operational. Prior research primarily explored risk management within specific fuel industry units supplied by a single source. This study represents a novel approach, delving into dual-source fuel strategies and engaging various supply chain stakeholders to identify and mitigate operational risks accordingly. The research findings demonstrate that stakeholders can reduce risks through integrated planning and collaboration among business units, with government support further reducing inter-unit risks. This study’s main contribution is establishing a basis for future research in eco-friendly fuel supply chains, specifically examining the long-term viability of blending petrofuel with biofuel. This extends risk analysis to supply chain networks involving multiple business units. Moreover, this research emphasizes the significance of case studies covering end-to-end product flows in fuel blend supply, encompassing various supply chain functions. Additionally, it investigates stakeholder perceptions of operational risks associated with different business unit types, addressing potential domino effects. It highlights the importance of information technology in risk reduction through collaborative information exchange within the supply chain.

Stakeholders’ view on selecting a prospective location for marine alternative fuels bunkering station

In times of energy transition and global efforts being made toward net zero, maritime transportation with its global fleet operating worldwide plays a key role. However, despite sufficient technology readiness in both ship- and shore-side solutions, bunkering facilities dedicated to green fuels are not widely available in seaports. With massive investments at stake, it is crucial to identify the perspectives of all potential stakeholders and the factors they find relevant for deciding on the location of bunkering infrastructure. Therefore, to select the most suitable location for such a bunkering station, combined Multi-Criteria Decision-Making methods were used along with expert elicitation. The identified criteria were subsequently validated through their application using a case study of Polish seaports. The research was conducted for marine alternative fuels in general as well as for bio-methanol, which was selected by stakeholders as having the highest potential for early implementation. In order to increase the practical application of the results, a model vessel was defined and used to verify the criteria obtained. The results of the case study indicate that the most essential decision-making criterion in both research scenarios is the reliability of the fuel supply chains. Concerning a potential location for launching bunkering stations among considered major Polish seaports is the port of Świnoujście followed by the port of Gdańsk or Szczecin depending on the case study scenario. The results of this study may be considered useful for strategic decision-makers engaged in maritime transportation, fuel supply chains, and environmental protection.

A systematic evaluation of risk in bioenergy supply chains

We introduce a novel method of evaluating risks of disruption to (bio)fuel supply chains. The biofuel landscape is complex, with multiple options for feedstocks and processing routes, but the type, size, and scale of risks are currently not sufficiently appreciated. As a consequence, the uptake of biofuels remains below expectation suggesting the need for comprehensive risk assessment. Our method of risk discovery and evaluation is based on a transparent and robust sustainability assessment framework, and exploits the richness of data and expert analysis available in publications. In a UK case study, we show that biomass (solids) has a similar risk score to coal, biogas being slightly less risky, with bioliquids being less risky still though more risky than wind and solar power. The most important cause of risk, ‘changing policy or regulatory framework’, reflects this fledgling industry's need for policy support. The second most important cause of risk is ‘lack of access to capital’, reflecting the scale of the process engineering required to convert biomass to tightly specified products which could substitute fossil fuels. Levels of optimism bias in the biofuel industry are high, leading to unrealistic expectations from complex technologies and dubious claims about the quantity of resource available. This, together with the wide variety and variability of feedstocks complicates the business case for biofuel investment. Bioenergy policy would benefit from a more nuanced understanding of risks which impede the widespread large-scale deployment of biofuels.

Development of flexible supportive policy with real options for renewable energy projects: Case of photovoltaic systems

Climate change and environmental crises as primary drivers of renewable energy development were invigorated uncertainties in the fossil fuel supply chain and price. Managing these uncertainties needs more flexibility in supportive policies. The minimum revenue guarantee and total income cap as two options are used in this research for renewable energy development. The diminution of government role in addition to replacement of fixed prices, like feed-in tariffs, with price range are the main peers for having flexible supportive policy. Application of options provide a range for the profitability of investments and assures that as well as guaranteeing a minimum income, excess profits are limited so the reliability in market prices is increased. Introducing options beside evaluating related projects with binomial lattice, contributes a basis for innovation in overcoming obstacles of PV development. Profitability index is used as a comprehensive measure for modifying time horizon, uncertain variable and target prices in flexible power purchase agreements. However, obtaining to a flexible power purchase agreement needs consideration of different factors, this research paved the way by proposing a novel method of applying real options in renewable energy development for risk management, especially the price risk as a major concern in such investments.

Sustainable-resilient-responsive supply chain with demand prediction: An interval type-2 robust programming approach

This study configures a novus multi-objective three-stage supply chain network that aims at optimizing sustainability, resilient and responsive measures, simultaneously. At first, a novel prediction model based on Markov chain, Dempster-Safer evidence theory and Shapely value is developed under trapezoidal interval type-2 fuzzy ambience to predict the demand of future scenarios. The prediction model prevents undesired loss occurred due to illogical demand consideration. To encounter interval type-2 fuzziness as well as risk in decision making, an unprecedented trapezoidal interval type-2 fuzzy robust possibilistic programming approach is introduced. The DEcision MAking Trial and Evaluation Laboratory method is suggested in the framework of trapezoidal interval type-2 fuzzy to prioritize the objective function by scrutinizing the interrelationship among different objective function components. As a result, the subjectiveness in the decision making framework is reduced. The generated configuration is then analysed using a blended approach that merges multi-choice reference goal programming with utility functions and particle swarm optimization. The integrated approach produces high-quality solution in lesser computational time. The insightful explorations are delivered based on a case study of hydrogen fuel supply chain in India. The outcomes show how resilient tactics are quite effective and can significantly enhance social, environmental, and economic aspects. It is determined that the best results for supply chain are obtained when the suggested sustainable, resilience and responsiveness tactics are used jointly. Moreover, the sensitivity analysis results suggest that the objective functions are substantially affected by the responsive level; therefore, managers ought to envisage the trade-off between responsiveness and other objective functions.

Joint production, transportation, and maintenance in downstream fuel supply chain

This paper presents an integrated production, maintenance, and transportation strategy for a multi-site, multi-demand, multi-tank fuel production system. Firstly, each site’s economic fuel production plan is developed under a random demand and service level. Then, a transportation plan is proposed to collaborate between sites in case of unavailability site or unmet needs, minimizing the total cost. According to the correlation between production and maintenance, a periodically preventive maintenance strategy is developed for both refining machines and storage tanks, while minimizing the incurred costs by considering the influence of fuel production rate on their failure rates. Additionally, in this study, experimental tests are performed on an industrial tank, based on the real-life case of fuel companies, to investigate the tanks’ degradation due to corrosion phenomena. The resolution complexity of the analytical model arises from its stochastic nature due to random demands. Hence, a transformation to a deterministic form is performed. Numerical examples and a sensitivity study are presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed methodology and the obtained results.

Impact of Filling Stations: Assessing the Risks and Consequences of the Release of Hazardous Substances

In today’s world, where environmental protection and sustainability are increasingly important, it is essential to pay attention to the environmental impact of different industries. One of these industries with a potentially significant impact on life, human health, the environment, and property is gas stations, which are essential links in the fuel supply chain. This article focuses on the topic of assessing the impact of gas stations on surrounding environments and will examine the potential negative impacts that these operations can have on society and the environment. The aim of the paper is to analyze how gas stations affect their surroundings in the event of an incident involving a spill of hazardous substances. The scope of the paper is to assess the impacts of a spill of hazardous substances from a gas station, with an emphasis on assessing the risks and consequences on the life and health of the people in the immediate vicinity of the gas station. The selected gas station’s location in the High Tatras National Park enhances the study’s significance due to the unique environmental context, heightened environmental sensitivity, and potential legislative implications. ALOHA software version 5.4.7 was chosen for simulating the release of hazardous substance due to its extensive substance database, mathematical models, support for various release sources, internet availability, and graphical result representation. This manuscript argues for risk assessment beyond current legislation, addressing unclassified sources of risk. This research contributes by utilizing predictive modeling, recognizing environmental contexts, and emphasizing legislative attention. It discusses the consequences of emergency scenarios involving gasoline and LPG, addresses potential limitations and uncertainties, and advocates for accident prevention and risk assessment, especially in environmentally sensitive areas. The conclusion suggests improvements in predictive modeling, legislative adaptation, collaboration, and an expanded scope of analysis for future research. The aim of the paper is also to discuss measures that can be taken to minimize these impacts and ensure sustainable and safe operation. Assessing the risks arising from the operation of gas stations contributes to the development of measures to protect and preserve our environment for future generations.

Designing a Renewable Jet Fuel Supply Chain: Leveraging Incentive Policies to Drive Commercialization and Sustainability

Renewable jet fuel (RJF) production has been recognized as a promising approach for reducing the aviation sector’s carbon footprint. Over the last decade, the commercial production of RJF has piqued the interest of airlines and governments around the world. However, RJF production can be challenging due to its dispersed supply resources. Furthermore, the production of RJF is more costly compared to producing conventional jet fuel. In this study, using a mixed integer linear programming (MILP), we design a corn-stover-based RJF supply chain network in which we obtain an optimized configuration of the supply chain and determine operational decisions required to meet RJF demand at airports. To accelerate the commercialization of RJF production, we examined four incentive programs designed to cover the supply chain’s costs, with agricultural statistics districts serving as the designated supply regions. This study is validated by employing the model to design the supply chain in the Midwestern United States. The results from this study are promising as they show the supply chain can achieve commercialization with partial financial coverage from the incentive programs. Based on the findings of this study, policymakers can devise policies to commercialize RJF production and accelerate its adoption by the industry.

Steam boiler sustainable fuel supply chain: the case of solid biomass in the Indonesian industrial sector

This paper explores the potential utilization of solid biomass as fuel for steam boilers in the industrial sector, contributing to the achievement of sustainable and low-carbon industries in the future. Solid biomass is derived from natural resources such as rice husk, bagasse, palm waste (shells, empty fruit bunches, palm stems), forest/agricultural waste, and industrial waste, which can be processed into fuel forms like pellets, briquettes or charcoal. This dense biomass serves as an alternative fuel to replace coal, particularly for industrial steam boilers. This research aims to identify the challenges faced by the biomass boiler fuel supply chain for the textile industry in West Java. Ensuring a consistent and reliable biomass fuel supply poses a significant challenge for the textile industry in this region. This study assesses the root causes of the current challenges and proposes solutions related to sourcing biomass as a raw material for low-carbon steam boilers to support industrial sustainability. The research methodology encompasses desk research, qualitative and quantitative data collection, and data processing and analysis. The results reveal various strategies that can be explored to address these challenges, including diversification of biomass sources, development of supply chain infrastructure, and improvement of biomass quality.

Decarbonising international shipping – A life cycle perspective on alternative fuel options

This study aimed to compare hydrogen, ammonia, methanol, and waste-derived biofuels as shipping fuels using life cycle assessment, to establish what potential they have to contribute to the shipping industry’s 100% greenhouse gas emission reduction target. A novel approach was taken where the greenhouse gas emissions associated with one year of global shipping fleet operations was used as a common unit for comparison, therefore, allowing the potential life cycle greenhouse gas emission reduction from each fuel option to be compared relative to Paris Agreement compliant targets for international shipping. The analysis uses life cycle assessment, from resource extraction to use within ships, with all GHGs evaluated for a 100-year time horizon (GWP100).Green hydrogen, waste-derived biodiesel, and bio-methanol are found to have the best decarbonisation potential, with potential emission reductions of 74–81%, 87%, and 85–94% compared to heavy fuel oil; however, some barriers to shipping’s decarbonisation progress are identified. None of the alternative fuels considered are currently produced at a large enough scale to meet shipping’s current energy demand, and uptake of alternative fuel vessels is too slow considering the scale of the challenge at hand. The decarbonisation potential from alternative fuels alone is also found to be insufficient, as no fuel option can offer the 100% emission reduction required by the sector by 2050.The study also uncovers several sensitives within the life cycles of the fuel options analysed, that have received limited attention in previous life cycle investigations into alternative shipping fuels. First, the choice of allocation method can potentially double the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of e-methanol due to the carbon accounting challenges of using waste carbon dioxide streams during fuel production. This leads to concerns related to the true impact of using carbon dioxide captured from fossil-fuelled processes to produce a combustible product, due to the resultant high downstream emissions. Second, nitrous oxide emissions from ammonia combustion are found to be highly sensitive due to high greenhouse gas potency, potentially offsetting any greenhouse reduction potential compared to heavy fuel oil. Further uncertainties are highlighted due to limited available data on the rate of nitrous oxide production from ammonia engines. The study therefore highlights an urgent need for the shipping sector to consider these factors when investing in new ammonia and methanol engines; failing to do so risks jeopardizing the sector’s progress towards decarbonisation.Finally, whilst alternative fuels can offer good decarbonisation potential (particularly waste derived bio-methanol and bio-diesel, and green hydrogen), this cannot be achieved without accelerated investment in new and retrofit vessels, and new fuel supply chains: the research concludes that existing pipeline of vessel orders and fuel production facilities is insufficient. Furthermore, there is a need to integrate alternative fuel uptake with other decarbonisation strategies such as slow steaming and wind propulsion.

Techno-economic assessment of different aviation fuel supply pathways including LH2 and LCH4 and the influence of the carbon source

Sustainable Jet A-1 and radical technological changes are required to decrease the CO2 emissions of the aviation industry. While the CO2 reduction potential of electric aircraft is limited, the implementation of LH2 and LCH4 are exemplary radical technological changes with large potential impact. Recent studies have evaluated conceptual designs for planes utilizing LH2 and LCH4. Also, the costs of sustainable Jet A-1 and green hydrogen have been evaluated in different studies. However, most studies focus on one fuel and its production costs and do not include the production at a sweet spot and the subsequent logistic to the destination. To address this issue and present novel research results, we conducted a holistic techno-economic assessment for the different fuels that could be implemented in the aviation industry; LH2, LCH4 and sustainable Jet A-1. Based on renewable hydrogen produced in Morocco, we compared the aspects of a local fuel synthesis with the synthesis in Germany. CO2 is supplied from ambient air in Morocco and from a local point source in Germany. For the latter, we considered a hydrogen transport via LH2 or LOHC, with a direct integration of the LOHC dehydrogenation into the fuel synthesis plant. We outlined the cost composition of every fuel supply chain and retrieved LH2 import costs of 157 €/MWh while the cost range for LCH4 is 217–228 €/MWh. SAF has the highest net production costs of 279–302 €/MWh.

Multi-objective optimization of renewable fuel supply chains regarding cost, land use, and water use

Renewable fuels contribute to net zero emissions by replacing fossil fuels in the transportation sector. Nevertheless, there are significant environmental concerns associated with renewable energy development, including land and water usage. This research explores the use of land and water related to large-scale renewable fuel production. We develop a multi-objective mathematical model to determine the optimal supply chain design for the EU's future renewable fuel demand in the transportation sector. We propose a flexible, multi-period, and multi-stage supply chain design that can accommodate multiple feedstocks and multiple products and that takes the seasonality of the resources into account. We consider economic and environmental impacts by minimizing total system costs, land use, and water use. Based on the analysis of the results, we gain insights into conflicting objective functions and the associated trade-offs and synergies to assist decision-makers in selecting an appropriate framework and gaining a better understanding of future opportunities and impacts of renewable fuel production. The outcome demonstrates that, despite not being a desirable alternative in terms of water and land usage, the utilization of energy crops as raw material has economic benefits. As shown by the results, the burden of such a supply chain lies with renewable electricity requirements that could be the capacity bottleneck and require investments. We find that we could achieve a nearly optimal value of land use and water use by increasing total cost by only 10%.

Hydrogen Technologies: A Critical Review and Feasibility Study

Nowadays, one of the most important areas in refining the energy sector in the developed countries is the transition to environmentally friendly technologies, and hydrogen energy production is the most promising of them. In this rapidly advancing area, significant progress in creating new technologies for hydrogen fuel generation, transportation, storage, and consumption has been recently observed, while a fast-growing number of research papers and implemented commercial projects related to hydrogen makes it necessary to give their general review. In particular, the combination of the latest achievements in this area is of particular interest with a view to analyzing the possibility of creating hydrogen fuel supply chains. This paper presents an analytical review of existing methods of hydrogen production, storage, and transportation, including their key economic and energy-related characteristics, and proposes an approach to the creation, analysis, and optimization of hydrogen supply chains. A mathematical model has been developed to determine the cost of hydrogen, taking into account the supply chain, including production, transport and storage. Based on the results of modeling in the given scenario conditions for 2030, 2040 and 2050, promising hydrogen supply chains have been established. Under the various scenario conditions, hydrogen production by 2050 is most preferable by the method of steam conversion of methane with a cost of 8.85 USD/kg H2. However, due to the environmental effect, electrolysis also remains a promising technology with a cost of hydrogen produced of 17.84 USD/kg.

Negating Non-proliferation? The Potential Sino-South Challenge to Nuclear Market Regulation

ABSTRACT Developing industrial-scale nuclear energy projects requires substantial technical expertise, access to complex fuel supply chains and long-term financial capital. For developing countries investing in civil nuclear energy programmes, securing external support is crucial. However, the nuclear technology trade market is heavily regulated and rather thin. Exporter states must balance commercial opportunity with security interests, given nuclear technology’s dual use. Because of this, incumbent exporters bear responsibility in crafting and enforcing market regulations. As highlighted by the budding Chinese-Argentinian relationship, newly capable market entrants, particularly the People’s Republic of China (PRC), have the potential to challenge international non-proliferation norms by fulfilling market demand where other, predominately Western, states have demurred. The strength of nuclear markets’ non-proliferation-oriented regulatory structures hinges on nascent relationships between entrepreneurial exporters and participating Global South states.

Carbon Warriors: Enhancing NATO’s Response to Climate Change

NATO’s response to climate change has, to date, focused on adjusting its planning and equipment to adapt to the predicted effects of a warming world and reduce its organisational emissions to comply with government mandates. Richard Milburn argues that NATO should take a more active approach, doing more to mitigate climate change by utilising its strategy, planning, purchasing, technological development, and operational capabilities and resources. Such an approach would help to address the security risks associated with climate change, and deliver significant benefits to military operations, such as reducing key diesel and jet fuel supply chain vulnerabilities on operations.