Frost Penetration Research Articles

寒冷地における畜舎施設の凍上対策に関する研究

The ratio of foundation cost to total cost is high in cold regions subject to ground damage due to frost heave. This is because a continuous footing is selected for foundations, and embedment depth is made larger than frost penetration depth to increase the resistance to frost heave.In this study, a freeing survey was conducted on the ground in various buildings housing livestock, and a method for preventing frost heave that allows a simplified structure was proposed. Survey results revealed that the freezing environment inside the livestock building was harsher than that outside. It was also found that the inside freezing environment changed with changing building usage. The study results show the freezing characteristics under each condition and the relationship between freezing index and frost penetration depth. A method is proposed for selecting a construction method for livestock buildings that prevents frost heave.

Microwave L-band emission of freezing soil

We report on field-measured microwave emission in a period of frost penetration into a grassland soil. The measurements were recorded with a high temporal resolution using an L-band radiometer mounted on a 7-m high tower. The observation period (December 2002 to March 2003) included two cycles of soil freezing and thawing with maximum frost depth of 25 cm. In situ soil temperature and liquid water content were measured at five depths down to 45 cm. Soil moisture profiles were calculated using the COUP numerical soil water and heat model in combination with measured soil properties and meteorological data monitored at the site. The L-band radiation data clearly showed the penetration and thawing of seasonal soil frost. We calculated soil reflectivities based on in situ measured and modeled soil moisture profiles by applying a coherent radiative transfer model. The calculated reflectivities were compared with the radiometrically determined soil reflectivities. It was demonstrated that the quantitative consistency between these reflectivities was significantly improved by applying an impedance matching approach accounting for surface effects. In this particular case, the dielectric structure of the uppermost soil horizon was largely influenced by soil roughness, vegetation, and snow cover. The radiometrically measured soil reflectivities were fitted using a radiative transfer model in combination with a roughness model assuming a soil surface roughness of 25 mm. The analysis during a period of frost penetration shows coherent behavior of the soil reflectivity. Temporal oscillation of the measured L-band radiation appears to be a coherent effect. This effect has the potential to be used for estimating the frost penetration velocity.

Relict sorted patterned ground in Lesotho

AbstractRelict sorted patterned ground is described from an upland interfluve on the Lesotho‐South Africa border at an elevation of 3280 m a.s.l. The site comprises 2–4° slope angles. Frost penetration through the regolith is inferred to have been to 1 m depth during pattern formation. Sorting is thought to have resulted from deep seasonal freezing during the depressed temperatures of the Late‐Pleistocene Last Glacial Maximum (∼18 000 years B.P.). No direct evidence for permafrost is documented. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evolution of the fluvial system of the Prypiat, Desna and Dnieper during the Late Middle - Late Pleistocene [ Evolution des systèmes fluviatiles des rivières Prypiat, Desna et Dniepr au cours du Pléistocène moyen récent et du Pléistocène supérieur.

A hypothesis that envisages Late Pleistocene braided rivers with enlarged meanders, unlike the present rivers of the European plains, anses from a tentative model for the development of the Prypiat-Dnieper-Desna alluvial plain in the late Middle - Late Pleistocene. This plain (local relief - 30-60 m) consists of a staircase of six river terraces and corresponding alluvial suites that have been forming since the Dnieper (Saale) Glaciation. Each terrace occupies a definite altitudinal step in this staircase and has a unique position within the plain as well as characteristic relief features related to terrace boundary shapes, longitudinal and cross profiles, primary fluvial and superimposed aeohan, cryogenic and erosional landforms. The alluvial suites have a cut-and-fill framework and noticeable differences in faciès composition expressed by sedimentary structures and other hthological features. Data inferred from the relief and from geological structures indicate complex fluvial system development with six main stages of varying duration and significance. These comprised one accumulative phase and five erosion-accumulation cycles, associated with weak pulsating tectonic uplift, expressed as 7-20 m of incision. The direct influence of the decay of the Dnieper ice sheet, alternations of glacial -interglacial runoff and stream load, significant fluctuations of precipitation, displacement of vegetation zones as well as permafrost thaw, all caused changes in the fluvial erosion-sedimentation regime. Glacially-fed suspended load streams, sandy meandering and braided streams, as well as sandy bedload braided and low sinuosity streams succeeded each other following the Dnieper Glaciation. These changes were accompanied by remarkable transformations of the river network general westward displacement, downstream displacement during the latest stages, abandonment of tributaries and inner fan formation. Proof of the existence of discontinuous permafrost or deep seasonal frost penetration has been obtained for the first time in the Late Pleistocene fluvial deposits of the area. Relying on the evidence of cryogenic and aeohan activity, the final phases of accumulation of the 1st Terrace Suite presumably correlate with the maximum of the Last Glaciation and the formation of the Peripheral Terrace Suite with permafrost degradation at the end of the Late Pleistocene.

Laboratory and field testing on rate of frost heave versus heat extraction

Equipment for performing laboratory freezing tests on soils has been developed to study the relation between the rates of heave and heat extraction. Laboratory freezing tests are performed on specimens over 500 mm tall. In addition, field equipment for automatically recording frost depth and heave has been installed in a pavement. The equipment gives temperature readings for every 50 mm. Temperature gradients at different depths, from laboratory as well as field, are calculated to estimate the rate of liberation of latent heat as a function of time. The calculations indicate that, for the laboratory testing, the heave rate is almost independent of the heat extraction rate for fairly long periods at a constant frost penetration rate. The recorded field data indicate that the heave rate is on average almost constant for relatively long periods of time with a continuous frost penetration, thereby supporting the existence of a maximum heave rate that can not be surpassed persistently. However, heave rate varies greatly if the heat extraction rate often changes between a high and a low level and can for short periods widely exceed the maximum average heave rate possible over long periods. The observed behavior is explained as a consequence of a limited capacity in the redistribution of water to the frost front to supply the heaving.

Snow cover and soil moisture controls on solifluction in an area of seasonal frost, eastern Alps

AbstractThis paper presents multi‐year measurements of solifluction, frost heave and the concurrent thermal and hydrological regimes at two solifluction lobes with seasonal frost in the eastern Alps, Austria. The monitoring system included a new solifluction meter and time‐domain‐reflectometry (TDR) probes to measure the unfrozen water content of the soil. Three phases of ground thermal and hydrological conditions were identified, each with distinct consequences for soil movements. Rapid frost heave occurred during initial ground freezing in early winter. Freezing intensity and maximum frost penetration are strongly influenced by snow drifting in that period. Another period of marked heaving during spring snowmelt is attributed to meltwater infiltration into the frozen ground. Solifluction commenced at high water contents with the beginning of thaw settlement and was enhanced by daily fluctuations of snowmelt and lateral influx of meltwater. Slow movements continued, or even started, after complete thawing of the ground as long as lateral runoff from snow patches upslope elevated soil water contents. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evidence for late‐Pleistocene permafrost in the New Jersey Pine Barrens (latitude 39°N), eastern USA

AbstractRelict sand wedges, up to 2.5 m deep and 0.4 m wide, are present in the Pine Barrens of southern New Jersey. They indicate the previous existence of permafrost. The wedges are composed predominantly of sand that shows evidence of wind transport and abrasion. Optically‐stimulated‐luminescence dating of infill material indicates that thermal‐contraction‐cracking and emplacement of the sand infill must have occurred during two separate periods during the Late Pleistocene. The most recent was in Late Wisconsinan times,∼15–18 ka. An earlier period of permafrost conditions is indicated by dates >55–65 ka. On both occasions, the Late‐Pleistocene ice sheets would have advanced as far south as northern New Jersey and strong winds would have occurred in the lower mid‐latitudes. The sandy soils of the Pine Barrens would have allowed the ice‐marginal periglacial zone to extend southwards into southern New Jersey. The sparse tundra vegetation on the sandy substrate, with its relatively high thermal conductivity, would have permitted deep frost penetration because the ‘thermal offset’ would have been minimized. A mean annual air temperature of between −3.0°C and −4.0°C is inferred. Permafrost was probably discontinuous and less than 10–15 m in thickness. Episodes of permafrost thaw are indicated by the widespread occurrence of deformed sediments (‘thermokarst involutions’) and by various small‐scale non‐diastrophic structures associated with bog ironstone beds. The presence of soil (ground) wedges in southern New Jersey and adjacent Delaware also suggest conditions of deep seasonal frost, probably when the most recent permafrost degraded. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Durability of Boston Blue Clay in Waste Containment Applications

An experimental investigation of the durability of natural and polymer-amended Boston Blue Clay (BBC) used in waste containment applications was conducted. Durability was assessed in terms of hydraulic conductivity and crack formation in response to freeze-thaw- and desiccation-induced stresses. The polymers tested were nonionic polysaccharide (guar gum) and cationic polyacrylamide (PAM) with aqueous concentrations ranging from 0.25 to 8.00 g/L. BBC proved resistant to shrinkage cracks from desiccation, but susceptible to ice lensing from the application of freeze-thaw cycles. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of natural BBC increased from 5×10−5 to 1×10−3 cm/s after five freeze-thaw cycles. The saturated hydraulic conductivity for guar- and PAM-amended BBC also increased in response to freeze-thaw cycling; however, both the initial and final values were nearly an order of magnitude lower than those of natural BBC. In terms of crack formation as identified with computed topography scans, extensive ice lensing was observed in both the unamended and guar-amended specimens, while the PAM-amended specimen exhibited no such behavior in response to freeze-thaw cycling. Crack formation from either desiccation or freeze-thaw cycling was quantified in terms of a crack area density (CAD) that decreased for both guar- and PAM-amended specimens, as compared with the natural BBC. In particular, the observed CAD values for natural and PAM-amended BBC subjected to freeze-thaw cycling were 69 and 8%, respectively. The observed CAD values for all BBC specimens subjected to desiccation stress were less than 3%. Overall, these results indicate that natural BBC may be unsuitable for waste containment applications where control measures are not implemented for frost penetration. Moreover, polymer amendment serves to improve the material by reducing crack formation and hydraulic conductivity.

Freezing processes in porous media: Formation of ice lenses, swelling of the soil

When moist porous soil is freezing, a volume expansion is generally observed. The volume increase is mainly due to a water migration process from the base of the soil up to the freezing front, which separates the lower unfrozen part from the upper frozen one. The coupled heat-mass transfer process is accompanied, under particular conditions, to the formation of pure ice segregated layers. Conversely, if the freezing process is too fast or the overburden pressure acting on the column of soil is relevant, no macroscopic accumulation of ice is observed. It is generally accepted that a thin transition region (frozen fringe), where water and ice coexist in the porous space, separates the unfrozen from the frozen parts of the soil. The strong interest on ground freezing is motivated by at least two reasons: preventing frost damages produced on roads pavements, pipelines, or other structures, and predicting the effects of artificial-freezing techniques for tunneling or underground constructions. We are going to present a mathematical model of frost heave where water is driven through the porous space by the coupling of a pressure and a chemical gradient. In particular, the interest is focused on detecting which are the boundary values for temperature (or thermal flux) that determine the process of lens formation or frost penetration, once the properties of the soil are known.

Sorted circles in the maritime Subantarctic, Marion Island

AbstractActive sorted circles are quantitatively described for the first time for the maritime Subantarctic. Increasing altitude and hence increasing frost penetration are associated with systematic increases in pattern spacing, cell width, height of the fine centre relative to the border, and depth of sorting (but not the width of coarse margins). These results imply consistent dimensional scaling of circle parameters. It is argued, on the basis of the altitudinal trends in pattern morphology, the dimensional scaling of forms, and the morphology of the patterns, that differential frost heave in association with convection cells is responsible for circle formation. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evaluation of Seasonal Effects on Subgrade Soils

One objective of the FHWA’s Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) program is to determine climatic effects on pavement performance. The LTPP instrumentation program includes seasonal monitoring program (SMP) instrumentation to monitor the seasonal variations of moisture, temperature, and frost penetration. Findings from the SMP instrumentation are to be incorporated into future pavement design procedures. Data from SMP instrumentation at the Ohio Strategic Highway Research Program Test Road (US-23, Delaware County, Ohio) and other reported results were analyzed to develop empirical equations. General expressions for the seasonal variations of average daily air temperature and variations of temperature and moisture in the fine-grained subgrade soil at the test site are presented. An expression for the seasonal variation of resilient modulus was derived. Average monthly weighting factors that can be used for pavement design were computed. Other factors such as frost penetration, depth of water table, and drainage conditions are discussed.

Stabilizing Unpaved Roads with Calcium Chloride

The U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service has stabilized unpaved road surfacing materials with relatively high concentrations of calcium chloride salt. The percentage of calcium chloride is higher than that traditionally used for dust abatement or aggregate base stabilization. Up to 2% pure salt by weight of aggregate was mixed into the top 2 in. (50 mm) of both aggregate and native road surfaces. The results were monitored for 2 to 4 years. The stabilized road surfaces resisted raveling and washboarding for several seasons and significantly reduced road blading and aggregate loss. As a result, calcium chloride stabilization may be a cost-effective treatment for roads with daily traffic volumes less than 200. Other benefits include reduced surface erosion and sedimentation; improved safety from reduced dust, raveling, and washboarding; and less frost penetration. Encouraged by these results, the Forest Service is conducting additional evaluations to determine the cost-effectiveness of surface stabilization with both magnesium chloride and calcium chloride in different environments and with different aggregate materials.

Design and Construction of Rock Cap Roadways: Case Study in Northeast Washington State

In recent years, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) has deviated from its normal policy of correcting frost heaving and thawing problems on state highways. WSDOT’s traditional approach for frost design rehabilitation has been to place a crushed stone base at least half the depth of the frost penetration. This approach has served WSDOT well on the majority of its highway system; however, other measures were sought to mitigate extensive frost-related problems in northeast Washington. To isolate the flow of water from the pavement structure, a capillary break using a free-draining aggregate or “rock cap: layer was used on projects during the last 5 years. The rock cap material was a maximum 75-mm (3-in.) material with 0% to 15% passing a 12.5-mm (1/2-in.) sieve. The open-graded nature of the rock cap provides a positive drainage blanket so that excess water can be eliminated from the roadway structure, and thus eliminates frost-heaving and thaw-weakening problems. However, constructing with a large stone material presents special construction considerations, particularly pertaining to the stability of the material. WSDOT’s construction experience is detailed, and rock cap performance in Washington State is summarized.

Winter streamflow, ground temperature and active‐layer thickness in Northeast China

AbstractSeasonal freezing and thawing influence the hydrological regimes of winter streamflow in northeast China where abrupt increases of 1.3° C and 2.8° C in the annual and winter air temperatures have occurred since the 1990s. Correlation between winter discharge and soil freezing is based upon hydrometeorological and geocryological data for the last 40 years. A mountainous watershed is used. The active‐layer temperature is estimated by a statistical model derived from annual air temperature, its annual range and the maximum depth of snow cover in January. Results indicate an asymptotic curve between winter streamflow and both thickness of the active layer and winter temperature. They imply that winter streamflow increases with a thickening of the active layer and a decrease in the depth of seasonal frost penetration in winter. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Prediction of freezing-induced movements for an underground construction project in Japan

This paper presents the results of a thermomechanical simulation of freezing around an existing tunnel in Kobe (Japan) to predict the deformations associated with ice lens formation and those resulting from thaw after construction is completed. The frost heave characteristics used in the numerical model were obtained from laboratory freezing tests conducted on undisturbed samples provided by the Osaka Soil Test Laboratory. With the planned construction schedule, the predictions suggest a maximum frost heave at the ground surface of about 4.8 cm while the expected thaw settlement in the tunnel's centerline was about 13 cm. Observed frost penetration and surface frost heave movements agree well with the predictions. Grout injected during thaw was successful in preventing excessive thaw settlement.Key words: frost, soils, heave, model, monitoring, field.

Protective Layer Design in Landfill Covers based on Frost Penetration

We develop a design procedure to determine the minimum thickness of a protective soil layer over a barrier layer in a landfill cover design. The procedure equates the minimum thickness of the overlying protective layer to the predicted extreme freezing-events depth that may occur in the landfill design life. This procedure is applicable to Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Subtitle C hazardous waste landfills and any landfill designed to encapsulate hazardous waste from the environment for long periods of time. This procedure was formulated by the Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action Project’s Technical Assistance Contractor to protect radon and infiltration barriers from degradation over a 200-year minimum design life. The procedure uses common soil parameters, a personal computer version of the modified Berggren equation, and site-specific daily maximum-minimum temperature data compiled for a minimum of 30 years to compute frost depths. The computed frost penetration magnitudes are then used with a Gumbel extreme-value probability distribution to predict frost depths for recurrence intervals corresponding to a design life that exceeds the record of observed data.

A field study of hoarfrost formation on insulated pavements

This paper presents the results of a field study of hoarfrost formation on insulated test sections located in Québec City. It was established that the surface cooling rate increases sharply when all of the granular material placed above the insulating layer is frozen. The absence of latent heat release makes the pavement surface more sensitive to rapidly changing meteorological conditions. It was also shown that hoarfrost formation occurs when the surface temperature is less than the frost point, and it is not related to the dew point, as generally accepted. The paper also discusses the relationship between the hoarfrost index, HFI, and the total thickness of hoarfrost deposits.Key words: frost penetration, pavement, insulation, surface cooling, differential icing, hoarfrost.

Modeling the tor-dotted crests, bedrock edges, and parabolic profiles of high alpine surfaces of the Wind River Range, Wyoming

Broad, low curvature surfaces common to many alpine landscapes, and particularly well expressed in the Laramide ranges of the western USA, appear to be roughly in steady state with respect to the current surface processes. Uniform, thin (order 1 m) regolith covers the crystalline bedrock with the exception of occasional tors at ridgecrests. The surfaces are commonly edged by bedrock lips, at the tops of cliffs that bound the intervening glacial troughs. Regolith production is low (order 10 μm/year) on bare bedrock and reaches a maximum under tens of centimeters of regolith. All of these characteristics may be accounted for with a numerical model that is faithful to the periglacial surface processes presently operating on these surfaces. Hillslope transport is modeled assuming the dominant process is frost creep; transport efficiency depends linearly upon local slope and appropriately vanishes in the absence of regolith. Frost frequency scales the rate of motion, while the ratio of frost penetration depth to regolith thickness dictates the degree to which the process is curtailed by available regolith. Initial conditions include initial mean slope and bedrock roughness and a uniform regolith cover. Boundary conditions are imposed by dictating that the edges of the calculation space be lowered at a rate appropriate for glacial incision. Broad convex surfaces emerge over time scales of order 1 million years. All surfaces rapidly decouple from the bounding glacial troughs, as the high negative curvature at the edges disallows accumulation of regolith. These bedrock edges lower at a few microns per year, while the troughs lower at many times this rate. As the bedrock edges, therefore, serve as the effective boundary condition for the remaining surface, the surfaces operate independently of both lowering and widening of the glacial troughs. For a reasonable set of transport and weathering rates, the final steady-state landscape is sensitive to the initial condition. In particular, the steeper the initial landscape, the more likely tors are to develop, as the high curvature disallows accumulation of regolith. These tors, in turn, limit the lowering rate of the crest, and the landscape retains significant local relief. Low relief initial conditions more likely lead to parabolic surfaces that lack tors. That tors are more likely on the crests reflects the high initial curvature at the crest. Tors on the side slopes are eliminated. The present high surfaces in the Laramide ranges of the western USA imply operation of periglacial surface processes over millions of years. The occasional tors imply a steeper rather than flatter initial landscape. The strong decoupling of surfaces from glacial troughs justifies their use as local geomorphic markers that allow calculation of relief production since glacial incision was initiated. On the other hand, their present low curvature does not require a landscape history in which these surfaces were once joined as an initially widespread erosion surface.

The frost penetration with the modified soil in the landfill bottom liner system

Many researchers have studied on the effect of freeze/thaw phenomena mainly on compacted soil samples of small diameter: Most of the experiments done so far were applied to study those effects on pavement design in civil engineering. The paper relates the freeze/thaw studies performed on large scale equipment to better simulate these effects under the existing field conditions in a landfill. A large scale (1.0 m×1.5m×2.0m) laboratory simulates the field depth of the bottom liner systems with the cold climate and it was also introduced many boundary conditions similar to those encountered in the landfill. As a bottom liner materials, the modified soil (mixed stabilizers, clays, cements, and clay minerals) was used instead of the natural clay. From bottom to top of this lysimeter, one can identify two layers: a) bottom liner of 30 cm; b) a stabilizer soil layer of 75cm. As results of the performed frezee/thaw simulations, it was found out that the depth of frost penetration increased a few centimeters more with 35–40 mm/hr simulated than that performed without simulated rainfall. Then, the frost heave increased a few millimeters. Also, a few cracks appeared, but they were not severe neither significantly opened. The results showed that compacted modified soil is as much as reliable the regual compacted clay liners normally used in landfill construction, submittd to strong winter conditions.

Corn stubble height and residue placement in the northern US Corn Belt: Part I. Soil physical environment during winter

Management of crop residue is important for sustaining biological activity in soils during winter and promoting soil water recharge and early spring thaw in cold regions. This study assessed the impact of stubble height and residue placement in a corn ( Zea mays L.) production system on the soil microclimate during winter in the northern Corn Belt of the USA. Residue treatments were established in a randomized block design after corn harvest in the autumn of 1993–1995 near Morris, MN. Corn was harvested using a combine that cut stalks at 60, 30 and approximately 0 cm above the soil surface and uniformly spread harvested residue over the soil. Treatments included: (1) 60 cm stubble, (2) 30 cm stubble, (3) 30 cm stubble with alternating bare and residue covered inter-rows, (4) 0 cm stubble, and (5) 0 cm stubble with all residue removed from the soil surface. Snow cover, depth of soil freezing and thawing, soil temperature and water content at various depths in the soil profile, and reflected global and net radiation were monitored during winter from November to March each year. Taller (60 cm) stubble trapped more snow, reduced the depth of frost penetration by at least 0.5 m, and hastened thawing of the soil profile by at least 25 days during winter as compared with short (0 cm) stubble and 0 cm stubble without residue treatments. Near surface, winter soil temperatures were moderated by at least 2 °C in the 60 cm stubble versus 0 cm stubble without residue treatments. Linear regression analysis suggested that 52, 93 and 40% of the variability in soil water recharge caused by residue treatments during successive winters, respectively, could be explained by differences in snow cover, soil water content and thaw depth among treatments. On clear days in autumn and spring, albedo was highest for the 0 cm stubble and lowest for the 0 cm stubble without residue treatments. Net radiation, however, was lowest for the 0 cm stubble and highest for the 0 cm stubble without residue treatments as compared with other residue treatments. Results from this study suggest that corn production systems in the northern Corn Belt which retain tall stubble on the soil surface will promote warmer soils during winter and earlier spring thaw as compared with those which retain short or no stubble on the soil surface.