Fresh Rhizomes Research Articles

Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of fresh and cured rhizomes of Curcuma longa and Etlingera philippinensis

The search for effective natural antioxidants has been increasing nowadays due to human health concern. Further investigation of the Zingiberaceae plants such as Etlingera philippinensis, a Philippine endemic plant, and Curcuma longa (turmeric) is key towards alleviating this concern. The present work aimed to provide fundamental information on the total antioxidant activity (TAA), total phenolic content (TPC), and curcumin content of the ethanolic extracts of the fresh and cured rhizomes of C. longa and E. philippinensis. Healthy and fresh rhizomes of E. philippinensis were collected from Kibawe, Bukidnon, while C. longa were from Musuan, Bukidnon, Philippines. TAA determination was done using phosphomolybdenum method, while TPC and curcumin content using spectrophotometric method. Results showed that the TAA of fresh and cured rhizomes of C. longa were significantly higher than those of fresh and cured rhizomes of E. philippinensis. The TPC of fresh and cured rhizomes of C. longa were significantly higher than those of fresh and cured rhizomes of E. philippinensis. Significantly higher curcumin content was also observed in the rhizomes of C. longa as compared to that in the fresh and cured rhizomes of E. philippinensis. Generally, the ethanolic extracts of the cured rhizomes of E. philippinensis and C. longa exhibited higher TAA, TPC, and curcumin content than the fresh one. TAA, TPC, and curcumin were significantly correlated with each other. It can thus be concluded that E. philippinensis could also be a source of valuable curcumin.

The integration of MS-based metabolomics and multivariate data analysis allows for improved quality assessment of Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is consumed for health-promoting effects and as a food condiment. Comprehensive phytochemical analysis, other than gingerols and shogaols, has not yet been deeply investigated. Hence, the current research aimed to establish a non-targeted metabolomics approach for the discrimination between fresh ginger rhizome samples collected from four different producing countries, i.e., China, India, Pakistan, and Peru. In addition, lab-dried samples were analyzed to trace drying-induced metabolites. A comprehensive extraction procedure was carried out resulting in production of polar and non-polar fractions. The polar fraction was analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Fourier transform tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-C18-FT-MS/MS) and gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) post derivatization. UPLC-C8-FT-MS/MS was used for analysis of non-polar fraction. Results revealed for identification of a total of 253 metabolites. In addition, multivariate data analysis (MVDA), including principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated clustering of Asian specimens. Several metabolites with a characteristic pattern for the origin revealing the highest contents of bioactive metabolites in the Peruvian product. Moreover, chemical markers identified, including [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol discriminating between fresh and dried samples. Furthermore, abundances of some primary metabolites, including amino acids and cinnamic acid, have confirmed the biosynthetic pathway of gingerols and their transformation upon drying to shogaols. The proposed approach can be applied as a potential candidate for quality assessment of ginger and other medicinal plants.

Low pH-Based Method to Increase the Yield of Plant-Derived Nanoparticles from Fresh Ginger Rhizomes.

Plant-derived nanoparticles (PDNPs) are naturally occurring exosome-like nanovesicles derived from dietary plants containing key plant bioactives. Ginger-derived PDNPs have a therapeutic effect on alcohol-induced liver injury, inflammatory bowel disease, and colon cancer. PDNPs are conventionally purified by differential ultracentrifugation, a technique not amenable for scale up. We have recently developed a polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000-based method for cost-effective purification of ginger PDNPs, with comparable efficiency to differential ultracentrifugation (Sci. Rep.2020, 10 (1), 4456.). Herein, we report a 4–5-fold higher ginger PDNP recovery when PEG precipitation was carried out in low pH conditions (pH 4 and 5). Low pH-derived ginger PDNPs were smaller in size without an overt change in zeta potential. The spontaneous intracellular entry and protection against oxidative stress in A431 cells were similar between ginger PDNPs purified under low, neutral, and alkaline pH. Low-pH purified ginger PDNPs had higher levels of total polyphenolic content compared to PDNPs purified under neutral and alkaline pH. Recently, ginger PDNP-derived microRNAs have been shown to exhibit cross-kingdom regulation by targeting human, gut microbiome, and viral transcripts. Using qRT-PCR, we also verified the presence of miRNAs that were predicted to target SARS-CoV-2 in ginger PDNPs purified under low pH. Thus, we have developed a method to purify ginger PDNPs in high yields by using low-pH conditions without affecting the major bioactive contents of PDNPs.

Determination of the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.)

Turmeric is a medicinal crop widely popular due to its curcumin content. While other countries have established the physical properties of this crop, literatures specific for turmeric found in the Philippines have yet been documented. Freshly harvested turmeric rhizomes were randomly selected and their physical and mechanical properties were measured. Test results showed that the rhizomes have an average moisture content of 84.7 %. The samples have mean dimensions of 77.2 mm (length), 23.0 mm (width) and 19.7 mm (thickness). Computations showed that the rhizomes have a geometric mean diameter, sphericity, aspect ratio, surface area, and volume of 32.4 mm, 0.436, 31.6, 3371.2 mm2 , and 19044.8 mm3 , respectively. The gravimetric properties were also determined, and measurements showed that the fresh rhizomes have true density, bulk density, and porosity of 1.002 g/mL, 0.51 g/mL, and 48.8 %, respectively. Frictional properties against plywood (across the grain), plywood (along the grain) and stainless steel revealed that the rhizomes have a coefficient of friction of 0.41, 0.30 and 0.20 against these materials, respectively. The average angle of repose on a flat level surface is 18.6°. The maximum puncture and shear force that mother rhizomes can withstand were determined to be 0.1761 and 0.1708 kN, respectively. For the finger rhizomes, a maximum puncture force of 0.1029 kN and shear force of 0.0899 kN were recorded. Fresh rhizomes were sliced and dried until the final moisture content reached 8 to 9%, in which they were then pulverized. Optical properties were characterized using the CIE L*a*b* color scale and were converted to H-S-B. Preliminary findings showed that hue values for the three classifications were almost the same and were identified to fall between the orange and yellow hue. The dried rhizomes recorded the lowest saturation and brightness values, however, these values increased after pulverization indicating that only the surface color was affected and the interior of the rhizomes retained its vividness.

Variable Secondary Metabolite Profiles Across Cultivars of Curcuma longa L. and C. aromatica Salisb.

Background: Curcuma spp. (Zingiberaceae) are used as a spice and coloring agent. Their rhizomes and essential oils are known for medicinal properties, besides their use in the flavoring and cosmetic industry. Most of these biological activities were attributed to volatile and nonvolatile secondary metabolites present in the rhizomes of Curcuma spp. The metabolite variations among the species and even cultivars need to be established for optimized use of Curcuma spp. Objectives: We compared the phytochemical profiles of rhizomes and their essential oils to establish the variability among seven cultivars: five of Curcuma longa L. (Alleppey Supreme, Duggirala Red, Prathibha, Salem, Suguna) and two of C. aromatica Salisb. (Kasturi Araku, Kasturi Avidi). The GC-MS and LC-MS-based analyses were employed to profile secondary metabolites of these selected cultivars. Methods: Rhizomes of Curcuma spp. were subjected to hydro-distillation to collect essential oil and analyzed by GC-MS. The methanol extracts of fresh rhizomes were subjected to LC-MS analyses. The compounds were identified by using the relevant MS library databases as many compounds as possible. Results: The essential oil content of the cultivars was in the range of 0.74–1.62%. Several compounds were detected from the essential oils and rhizome extracts by GC-MS and LC-MS, respectively. Of these, 28 compounds (13 from GCMS and 15 from LCMS) were common in all seven cultivars, e.g., α-thujene, and diarylheptanoids like curcumin. Furthermore, a total of 39 new compounds were identified from C. longa L. and/or C. aromatica Salisb., most of them being cultivar-specific. Of these compounds, 35 were detected by GC-MS analyses of essential oils, 1,2-cyclohexanediol, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-, and santolina alcohol, to name a few. The other four compounds were detected by LC-MS of the methanolic extracts of the rhizomes, e.g., kaempferol-3,7-O-dimethyl ether and 5,7,8-trihydroxy-2′,5′-dimethoxy-3′,4′-methylene dioxyisoflavanone. Conclusions: We identified and recorded the variability in the metabolite profiles of essential oils and whole rhizome extracts from the seven cultivars of Curcuma longa L. and C. aromatica Salisb. As many as 39 new metabolites were detected in these seven Indian cultivars of Curcuma spp. Many of these compounds have health benefits.

Identification of the Appropriate Curing Method for Sri Lankan Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Compare its Phytochemical Properties with an Indian Market Sample

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is an underground rhizome that is an essential ingredient in day-to-day life. India is the major turmeric production and exportation country in the world. However, since December 2019, Sri Lanka has banned the importation of turmeric from other countries like India. Curing is a significant step during the processing of turmeric, which can be described as cooking fresh turmeric rhizomes before going to the drying step. Curing helps to avoid the raw odor, to reduce the drying time, to distribute the pigment product uniformly, and facilitate uniform drying. This study was conducted to identify the best protocol for turmeric processing and compare the quality of local turmeric samples prepared by using different processing steps such as, uncured and dried as slices, water boiled and dried as slices, steamed and dried as slices with imported turmeric from India. All the samples were separately analyzed for phytochemical properties (moisture content, volatile oil content, curcumin content, oleoresin content, etc.). Curcumin is an important attribute when considering the quality of turmeric. Curcumin content is varied with the curing step. The lowest curcumin content was shown by the uncured and sliced sample (2.86 ± 0.13 %). Steamed and dried as slices sample showed the highest curcumin content (4.51 ± 0.02 %). Curing and Slicing also decreased the drying time. However, water boiled and sliced sample (T-2) showed a high yield (wet to dry ratio 5.41:1), volatile oil content 4.40 ± 0.00 %, and oleoresin content 14.81 ± 2.36 %. According to the results, among the locally produced turmeric, steamed and dried as slices sample (T-3) showed good quality especially for curcumin content.

Comparative HPTLC fingerprinting profile and GC-MS analysis of raw and purified Guggulu (Commiphora wightii. Arn. Bhand) by Ayurvedic purification method.

Guggulu is an oleo gum resin obtained from the plant Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhand., used in Ayurved ic medicines for various ailments like anti-inflammatory conditions, hyperlipidemia, thyroid disorders etc. Guggulsterones E & Z are responsible for these broad ranges of pharmacological actions. It is recommended to do Shodhana (purification) before incorporating it into medicinal formulations. Sahasrayoga, an Ayurvedic text, emphasizes the purification of Guggulu in a particular media, which is a long run practice in Kerala. To compare the physicochemical and phytochemical parameters, quantitative estimation of Guggulsterone E & Z using high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) and qualitative gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of Guggulu before and after purification. Shodhana of Guggulu was performed in Water boiled with crushed fresh leaves of Neem (Azadirachta indica) and fresh rhizome of turmeric (Curcuma longa) using a special equipment (Dolayantra). Preliminary physicochemical and phytochemical evaluation, quantification of Guggulsterones E & Z using HPTLC and GC-MS analysis of raw and purified Guggulu were performed. Phytochemical evaluation of metabolites revealed marked variations. The mean concentrations of Guggulsterone E & Z showed significant differences before and after purification (p<0.01). On GC-MS analysis, it was found that few new compounds were added in the purified Guggulu. Therapeutic efficacy of Guggulu might have enhanced after traditional purification.

Evaluation of Postharvest Drying, Key Odorants, and Phytotoxins in Plai (Zingiber montanum) Essential Oil.

Plai or cassumunar ginger (Zingiber montanum), mainly distributed in tropical Asia, is an essential oil-bearing rhizomatous crop belonging to the Zingiberaceae family. Rhizomes and essential oil of this herb are used in culinary as flavoring agents, traditional medicines, and aromatherapy. In this study, the effect of different postharvest drying methods (air-, oven-drying at 40 and 60 °C, sun-, microwave-, and freeze-drying) of its sliced rhizome on the essential oil yield, composition, and sensory quality was investigated. The major key odorants and phytotoxins in its essential oil were identified for the first time through sensory- or bioassay-guided fractionation. Although the drying methods did not alter the oil composition significantly, oven-drying at 40 °C and freeze-drying produced the highest oil yield (81.0% of fresh rhizome) while maintaining the sensory quality. 4-Terpineol was found to be the majorly abundant key odorant in its oil through detailed sensory analysis. This oxygenated monoterpene was also demonstrated to be the major phytotoxin negatively affecting seed germination and shoot and root growth of wheatgrass seeds with IC50 values of 0.67, 0.10, and 0.17 mM, respectively. The current study is beneficial for further value addition of this crop in food industries and the agricultural sector.

A Performance Evaluation of Vis/NIR Hyperspectral Imaging to Predict Curcumin Concentration in Fresh Turmeric Rhizomes

Hyperspectral image (HSI) analysis has the potential to estimate organic compounds in plants and foods. Curcumin is an important compound used to treat a range of medical conditions. Therefore, a method to rapidly determine rhizomes with high curcumin content on-farm would be of significant advantage for farmers. Curcumin content of rhizomes varies within, and between varieties but current chemical analysis methods are expensive and time consuming. This study compared curcumin in three turmeric (Curcuma longa) varieties and examined the potential for laboratory-based HSI to rapidly predict curcumin using the visible–near infrared (400–1000 nm) spectrum. Hyperspectral images (n = 152) of the fresh rhizome outer-skin and flesh were captured, using three local varieties (yellow, orange, and red). Distribution of curcuminoids and total curcumin was analysed. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) models were developed to predict total curcumin concentrations. Total curcumin and the proportion of three curcuminoids differed significantly among all varieties. Red turmeric had the highest total curcumin concentration (0.83 ± 0.21%) compared with orange (0.37 ± 0.12%) and yellow (0.02 ± 0.02%). PLSR models predicted curcumin using raw spectra of rhizome flesh and pooled data for all three varieties (R2c = 0.83, R2p = 0.55, ratio of prediction to deviation (RPD) = 1.51) and was slightly improved by using images of a single variety (orange) only (R2c = 0.85, R2p = 0.62, RPD = 1.65). However, prediction of curcumin using outer-skin of rhizomes was poor (R2c = 0.64, R2p = 0.37, RPD = 1.28). These models can discriminate between ‘low’ and ‘high’ values and so may be adapted into a two-level grading system. HSI has the potential to help identify turmeric rhizomes with high curcumin concentrations and allow for more efficient refinement into curcumin for medicinal purposes.

Residual and Direct Contact Toxicities of Crude Extracts and Essential Oils from Acorus calamus L. (Acoraceae) Rhizomes against Cassava Red Mites (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Abstract Tetranychus truncatus Ehara (Acari: Tetranychidae) is a serious economic pest of many plants in Thailand and other countries. The use of plant extracts is an alternative to conventional synthetic pesticides for controlling mite pests. This study was conducted to evaluate the residual and direct contact toxicities of crude extracts and essential oils obtained from Acorus calamus L. (Acoraceae) rhizomes against T. truncatus eggs and adult females under laboratory conditions. Residual toxicity was assayed by applying compounds on leaf discs and then releasing adult female mites on the discs; direct contact toxicity was assayed by spraying the compounds on eggs and adult females. In residual assays, a 10% (v/v) concentration of essential oils extracted from fresh A. calamus rhizomes caused 73.8% mortality of T. truncatus adults, while treatment with oils from dried rhizomes caused 91.8% mortality of adults. In direct-contact toxicity assays, essential oils from fresh rhizomes reduced egg hatch by 96.3% at 5% (v/v) concentration and 100.0% at 10%. Oils extracted from dried rhizomes reduced egg hatch by 28.8% at 5% and 91.8% at 10%. The respective median lethal concentrations (LC50s) were 2.18% and 5.91%, based on cumulative mortality at 7 d after treatment. Methylene chloride extracts from fresh and dried rhizomes (individual extraction method) caused a cumulative adult mite mortality of 100% and 91.4% at 5% (v/v) concentration, with LC50s of 1.31% and 2.52%. Based upon our results, essential oils and methylene chloride extracts from A. calamus rhizomes appear as suitable botanical acaricides for further development for the management of T. truncatus.

EFFECT OF VARIOUS WATER REGIMES AND HERBICIDES ON THE RE-SPROUTING ABILITY OF COMMON REED RHIZOME FRAGMENTS

Abstract Two separate experiments were conducted to examine the effect of various water regimes and herbicides on re-sprouting-ability of common reed rhizome fragments. Each experiment was laid-out in completely randomized design (CRD) having water levels and herbicides as treatments, replicated thrice. Five fragments of fresh rhizomes with active buds were placed in the soil in each pot for investigating the effect of various water regimes on re-sprouting of common reed. Sprouting were examined up to two months. While in the 2nd experiment post emergence herbicides were applied to the re-sprouts to check the efficacy of various herbicides against common reed management. Various water regimes affected the re-sprouting ability of common reed rhizomes. The lowest sprouting (6.66%) were noted for T8 (control) where no water was applied except at the time of placing the rhizomes in the pots, while maximum (96.66%) sprouting observed within (T3) water was applied from 5th to 7th weeks (5 times). While in the 2nd experiment herbicides significantly affected the re-sprouting ability, growth and biomass production of common reed and minimum re-sprouting and shoot biomass (3.33% and 6.00 g), respectively, were noted for fenoxaprop-p-ethyl as compared to control treatment (90.00% and 38.67 g) where no herbicide had been applied. Therefore it is concluded from the results that on either side from water regime T5 the re-sprouting ability decreases and buds mortality increases, which clearly indicates that common reed needs slightly moist soil to start the re-sprouting and do not need standing water during that period, while after re-sprouting it do needs water i.e. from 3rd weed onwards and dry conditions afterwards (T6-T8) cannot be tolerated. Therefore flooding common reed after cutting [1]for three weeks of draining and keeping them dry for 8 weeks can be used as cultural control method for common reed management, while in case of herbicides fenoxaprop-p-ethyl gives desirable results to control the common reed and to stop further infestation.

Alterations in Microrhizome Induction, Shoot Multiplication and Rooting of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) var. Bentong with Regards to Sucrose and Plant Growth Regulators Application

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) var. Bentong is a monocotyledon plant that belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. Bentong ginger is the most popular cultivar of ginger in Malaysia, which is conventionally propagated by its rhizome. As its rhizomes are the economic part of the plant, the allocation of a large amount of rhizomes as planting materials increases agricultural input cost. Simultaneously, the rhizomes’ availability as planting materials is restricted due to the high demand for fresh rhizomes in the market. Moreover, ginger propagation using its rhizome is accompanied by several types of soil-borne diseases. Plant tissue culture techniques have been applied to produce disease-free planting materials of ginger to overcome these problems. Hence, the in vitro-induced microrhizomes are considered as alternative disease-free planting materials for ginger cultivation. On the other hand, Bentong ginger has not been studied for its microrhizome induction. Therefore, this study was conducted to optimize sucrose and plant growth regulators (PGRs) for its microrhizome induction. Microrhizomes were successfully induced in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with a high sucrose concentration (&gt;45 g L−1). In addition, zeatin at 5–10 µM was found more effective for microrhizome induction than 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) at a similar concentration. The addition of 7.5 µM 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) further enhanced microrhizome formation and reduced sucrose’s required dose that needs to be supplied for efficient microrhizome formation. MS medium supplemented with 60 g L−1 sucrose, 10 µM zeatin and 7.5 µM NAA was the optimum combination for the microrhizome induction of Bentong ginger. The in vitro-induced microrhizomes sprouted indoors in moist sand and all the sprouted microrhizomes were successfully established in field conditions. In conclusion, in vitro microrhizomes can be used as disease-free planting materials for the commercial cultivation of Bentong ginger.

Sustainable agricultural practices for improving growth, yield and quality of turmeric (Curcumalonga L.)

A field experiment was carried out in district-Sangli (Maharashtra) to study the effect of sustainable agricultural practices for improving growth, yield and quality of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) variety Salem during 2018 and 2019. Twelve treatments were evaluated in randomized block design with three replications. The results revealed that plant height, leaves/plant, width of leaves, leaf area index and clumps/plant tended to increase with age of plant and maximum values were recorded at 150 DAP, irrespective to various treatments. Application of 50% RDF + 50% NC resulted in significantly higher fresh weight of primary rhizome (46.5 g), fresh weight of secondary rhizome (55.5 g) and high marketable yield of rhizome (251.2 q ha-1) over control. The total yield of fresh rhizome per plot was comparatively on higher side (418.5g) when compared to control (308.1g) and other treatments. The application of 50% RDF + 50% NC proved superior for enhancing the quality parameters of turmeric such as fats (1.06 %), protein (1.25 %), carbohydrates (9.25 %) and curcumin (5.13 %) content to other treatments. Soil productivity was recorded maximum due to combined application of 50 % RDF + 50 % NC than the application of all these fertilizers alone. Fertility status of post-harvest soil improved with most of the treatments over control and higher values were recorded with 50% RDF + 50% NC treatment.

Character association studies in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.)

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is an important spice crop being grown in India belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. Experiment was conducted in a farmer’s field of Mysuru district in Karnataka for two growing seasons and ‘IISR Prathibha’ variety was used. Correlation co-efficients were worked out for the various growth, physiological, yield and quality parameters. Highly significant and positive association of plant height (0.91), number of leaves (0.89), number of tillers (0.86), secondary rhizome weight (0.81), mother rhizome weight (0.80), chlorophyll content (0.71), mother rhizome number (0.64), leaf area (0.62), leaf area index (0.62) and primary rhizome weight (0.52) with fresh rhizome yield was observed. A significant and negative correlation was observed for ar-turmerone content with PAL activity (-0.43) and curcumin content (-0.39). Between the SPAD values and the curcumin content, the association was highly significant and positive (0.55).

Effect of planting methods and plant population on productivity of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and soil physical properties

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is largely used in diversifed forms as a condiment, favouring and colouring agent and as a principal ingredient in Indian culinary as curry powder. For the higher productivity, identifcation of location specific production technologies is of prime importance. A study was conducted at the Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab for three consecutive years during kharif seasons of 2013–2015 to appraise the effect of planting methods and plant population on growth and yield of turmeric, and physical properties of the soil. The experiment was arranged in split plot design with four planting methods viz., fatbed, ridge spaced at 45 cm, ridge spaced at 60 cm and bed of 67.5 cm (2 rows per bed) in main plots and three plant populations viz., 1, 33, 334; 1, 66, 667 and 2, 00, 000 plants ha−1 in sub plots with four replications. The results revealed that bed (67.5 cm) planting method registered signifcantly better growth and yield attributes like plant height, leaf area index, dry matter accumulation, number of rhizomes per plant and consequently fresh and dry rhizome yields than other planting methods except than fatbed during frst year. Plant height and leaf area index were signifcantly improved while dry matter accumulation and number of rhizomes per plant were signifcantly less with higher plant population than lower plant population. Fresh and dry rhizome yield were signifcantly higher with plant population of 2, 00, 000 and 1, 66, 667 plants ha−1 than plant population of 1, 33, 334 plants ha−1 due to more plants per unit area under higher plant population. Soil bulk density was signifcantly lowered under ridge and bed planting methods than fatbed planting method at shallow (0–15 and 15–30 cm) soil layers, however, no signifcant effect was observed at deeper soil layers of 30–45 and 45–60 cm. Water infltration rate was recorded in the lessening order of ridge spaced at 60 and 45 cm, bed 67.5 cm and fatbed planting methods, respectively.

Organic Ginger (&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Zingiber officinale&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Rosc.) Development in a Short Temperate Growing Season: Effect of Seedling Transplant Type and Mycorrhiza Application

Global warming and consumer demand for medicinal plants present an opportunity to introduce ginger growth to the US Delmarva Peninsula. High tunnel and field studies were conducted to assess the development of organic ginger (Zingiber officinalis, Rosc) seedling transplants in mycorrhiza-amended soil. Transplant types were tissue culture derived with less than three tillers (TCS1), three or more tillers (TCS2), and nontissue culture derived (NTCS1). Transplants were grown with or without mycorrhiza (2.8 g per plant) in a split plot design with soil amendments as main plot and transplant type as subplot. Data were collected for air temperatures, plant height, tiller number, leaf chlorophyll index (LCI), rhizome fresh weight, plant biomass, rhizome nutrients, and levels of As and Pb. TCS2 transplants produced significantly higher, or trended to higher rhizome yield than transplants with less than three tillers, except for year two field study. The maximum rhizome fresh weight per plant was 648.3 g for TCS2 in high tunnel in year one. Generally, TCS2 had most tillers throughout the growing season ranging from 6.9 to 25.7 tillers per plant over three studies. Mycorrhiza had no effect on ginger height, tiller number, LCI or rhizome yield. Sustained high temperatures above 37°C, plus high light in the field caused dieback and stunted shoot growth in year two. There were no consistent effects of mycorrhiza or transplant type on rhizome nutrient content. Content of total Pb, As and other elements were at safe threshold levels for rhizome consumption. These results suggest that gingers grown from TCS2 transplants with at least three tillers yielded more rhizome than those grown from S1 transplants with fewer tillers. Introduction of ginger to a short season region such as the Delmarva may require consideration of environmental condition such as high temperature and light to which seedling transplants may be exposed in summer.

FLDs on Turmeric (Rajendra sonia) in Muzaffarpur, Bihar: Adoption Horizontal Spread and Satisfaction Level

Keeping in view of effective extension approach of Frontline demonstrations (FLDs) for dissemination of technology FLDs on turmeric conducted by KVK, Turki, Bihar. The yield and economic performance of frontline demonstration, horizontal spread of technology, extent of adoption level and extent of satisfaction of respondent farmer over extension services and performance of demonstration was measured. It was observed that there was 15.0 to 19.6 per cent increase in fresh rhizome yield over local check and the average benefit cost ratio was higher under demonstration 3.3 as compared to control plots 2.5 during the all years of the study. The horizontal spread of turmeric cv. Rajendra sonali was estimated from about 13 ha during 2015-16 to 43 ha during the year 2019-20. The findings of the study also revealed that there was increase in adoption level ranging from 9.4 per cent of sowing time and method to 46.9 per cent of improved and quality seed after the FLD programmes. The majority of the respondent farmers expressed high extent (51.2%) to the medium (34.4%) extent of satisfaction from extension services and performance of technology under demonstrations. It can be concluded that frontline demonstrations are one of the important tool to demonstrate newly released crop production and protection technologies and its management practices in the farmer’s field under different agro-climatic region and farming situations.

The Effect of Planting Distance and Bokashi from Several Types of Organic Fertilizers on the Growth and Yield of Elephant Ginger Variety (Zingiber Officinale var. Roscoe)

Given the large market opportunity for ginger to meet consumption, it is necessary to seek various methods of increasing production, both in terms of quality and quantity. To achieve these result, ginger production in Indonesia must be expanded, intensified, and diversified in an appropriate and economically sustainable manner. The goal of this study was to see how spacing and bokashi from various organic fertilizers affected the growth and yield of elephant ginger. This experiment used a factorial design with a randomized block design (RBD) of two factors. The first factor is the spacing (J), which has three levels: 40 cm x 20 cm spacing (J1), 40 cm x 30 cm spacing (J2), and 40 cm x 40 cm spacing (J3). The second factor is organic fertilizer bokashi (B), which is made up of four experiments: no bokashi (Bt), pig manure bokashi (Bb), cow dung bokashi (Bs), and green manure bokashi (Bh). The experimental results were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance. Results showed that the interaction effect of distances and the type of bokashi with organic fertilizer has no significant difference (P 0.05) in the growth and yield of elephant ginger. The average net assimilation rate 90-105 dap, as well as the average plant growth rate 75-90 dap were compared. The highest yield of fresh rhizomes per hectare was obtained in the at a 40 cm x 20 cm spacing.

Characterization of Volatile Organic Compounds in Mango Ginger (Curcuma amada Roxb.) from Myanmar.

Curcuma amada Roxb. (Zingiberaceae), commonly known as mango ginger because its rhizome and foliar parts have a similar aroma to mango. The rhizome has been widely used in food industries and alternative medicines to treat a variety of internal diseases such as cough, bronchitis, indigestion, colic, loss of appetite, hiccups, and constipation. The composition of the volatile constituents in a fresh rhizome of C. amada is not reported in detail. The present study aimed to screen and characterize the composition of volatile organic compound (VOC) in a fresh rhizome of three C. amada (ZO45, ZO89, and ZO114) and one C. longa (ZO138) accessions originated from Myanmar. The analysis was carried out by means of headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS). As a result, 122 VOCs were tentatively identified from the extracted 373 mass spectra. The following compounds were the ten most highly abundant and broadly present ones: ar-turmerone, α-zingiberene, α-santalene, (E)-γ-atlantone, cuparene, β-bisabolene, teresantalol, β-sesquiphellandrene, trans-α-bergamotene, γ-curcumene. The intensity of ar-turmerone, the sesquiterpene which is mainly characterized in C. longa essential oil (up to 15.5–27.5%), was significantly higher in C. amada accession ZO89 (15.707 ± 5.78a) compared to C. longa accession ZO138 (0.300 ± 0.08b). Cis-α-bergamotene was not detected in two C. amada accessions ZO45 and ZO89. The study revealed between-species variation regarding identified VOCs in the fresh rhizome of C. amada and C. longa.

Ginger wilt and rot disease caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata in China.

Ginger (Zingiber officinaleRosc.) is an herb that has been grown in China for more than 2500 years. It can be used as both a spice and a therapeutic drug. In July 2013, ginger plants were found to have wilting symptoms and yellowing leaves with netrotics leaf tips in a farm in Kunming city of Yunnan province (25. 02 N; 102.42 E), southwest China, and we also found gray-black lesion on the surface of the harvest gingers in a market in Kunming. Initial symptoms on harvest gingers appeared as gray-black mycelia growth on the surface of the harvested ginger, which enlarged and extended internally. Carrot baiting was used to isolate the pathogen from rotted gingers and diseased ginger leaves (Moller and Devay. 1968). After two weeks, spores developing from perithecia on the carrot pieces were transferred to malt extract agar (MEA) and incubate at 25°C constant-temperature incubator. Six single-spore isolates (ZOR-1 to ZOR-6) were obtained, the isolates were stored in 15% glycerol at -80°Crefrigeratorin State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan Agricultural University. Cultures varied in color from white to brownish green to brown. N = 50 for all measurements. Blackish brown, globose perithecia (131.9 to 186.0 μm × 138.5 to 188.3 μm) with a long black neck (400.2 to 644.7 μm) were immersed, partially embedded or superficial on the substrate. Ascospores were globose or had a "hat-like" morphology typical of Ceratocystis fimbriata, and were 4.0 to 5.3 μm × 4.8 to 6.2 μm. Endoconidia were cylindrical and clavate (2.9 to 7.4 μm × 7.5 to 32.8 μm), conidia were barrel-shaped (4.4 to 10.4 μm× 6.2 to 12.9 μm), and chlamydospores were smooth, blackish brown, ovoid or obpyriform (8.42 to 12.21 μm × 10.47 to 17.65 μm) (Webster and Butler. 1967; Engelbrecht and Harrington. 2005). Genomic DNA was extracted from two isolates (ZOR-1, ZOR-2) using the CTAB method (Lee and Taylor 1990). The internal transcribed spacers (ITS) region of rDNA was amplified using primers ITS1F/ITS4 (Thorpe et al. 2005). The nucleotide sequences of ZOR-1 and ZOR-2 (GenBank accessions KJ511490 and KJ511491) were 100% homologous to those of the isolates of C. fimbriata from diseased Cucumis sativusL. and Punica granatum L. in China (GenBank accessions MH535909 and KT963159). Thus, the pathogen was identified as C. fimbriata. Pathogenicity tests were made on fresh ginger rhizomes in laboratory, the pathogen was cultured for 14 days on MEA (ZOR-1, ZOR-2), which were washed with sterilized water and the resulting spore suspensions diluted to 1.0 × 106 spores/ml . Wounds (0.5 × 0.5 cm) were made on the surface of healthy mature ginger rhizomes by scraping with a sterile scalpel, then treated with a 100 ul spore suspension. Control ginger rhizomes were coated sterile water. Ginger rhizomes were stored at room temperature. Each treatment was performed in triplicate. After 5 days, grey-black mycelia developed on the rhizome surface, becoming a visible black mould after 1 week. We reisolated the pathogen from infected tissues, but not from the controls. In the greenhouse, 20ml of 1.0 × 106 spores/ml suspensions from isolates ZOR-1 and ZOR-2, or sterile water were injected into two-month- old ginger seedlings in triplicate. The inoculated site on the stem turned black in 5 days. 6 weeks after inoculation, the inoculated plants developed yellowing leaves and wilting symptoms. The same fungus was re-isolated from inoculated plants, but not from the controls. According to Koch's Postulation, the inoculated strains of ZOR-1 and ZOR-2 were the pathogens causing ginger wilt and rot disease. To the best of our knowledge, ginger is a new host plant of Ceratocystis fimbriata from China. In recent years, we have found that this disease incidence was approxmiatelt 5 to 10% of the farmland and 5 to 15% of the stored condition respectively in Yunnan Province. If not prevented ginger production in China will be affected.