Ecosystem Services Framework Research Articles

Knowledge sharing, problem solving and professional development in a Scottish Ecosystem Services Community of Practice

The ecosystem services framework has now been embodied in policy and practice, creating the need for governance structures that allow science, policy and practice to come together and facilitate shared learning. We describe five years of progress in developing an Ecosystem Services Community of Practice in Scotland, which brings together over 600 individuals from diverse constituencies to share experiences and learn from each other. We consider the ‘community’ and ‘practice’ aspects to demonstrate the benefits of establishing an Ecosystem Services Community (ESCom). We also demonstrate how the journey involved in the creation and continuing evolution of ESCom has proved valuable to researchers, policy-makers, practitioners and students and as such has contributed to social learning. We reflect on challenges, given the voluntary nature, absence of formal institutional support and emergence of initiatives focusing on overlapping topics. Based on our experience, we provide ten recommendations to help future ecosystem services communities of practice.

Concepts, Not Words, Are at the Core of Science and of the Ecosystem Services Framework

Concepts, Not Words, Are at the Core of Science and of the Ecosystem Services Framework

Landscape concepts and approaches foster learning about ecosystem services

The ecosystem services framework aims to encourage ecological sustainability through political-economic decisions. However, it fails to capture the complexity of social–ecological interactions. This is an obstacle for coping with current grand challenges through integrative knowledge production and collaborative learning. Landscape concepts and approaches, which emphasize human–environment interactions, governance and stewardship, can help overcome this obstacle. In particular, landscape concepts and approaches can help resolve the integrative and operational gaps encountered in the ecosystem services framework as a means of communicating evidence-based knowledge about the state and trends of ecosystems. The goal of this Special Issue is to address how different interpretations of landscape can support knowledge production about ES, and how applying landscape approaches on the ground can encourage more collaborative and sustainable land management alternatives. The effectiveness of the ecosystem services framework can be improved by (1) the use of landscape concepts to build bridges to different disciplines, arts and practice, as well as to build SMART sustainability indicators, and (2) the application of holistic landscape approaches for place-based knowledge co-production and collaborative learning across multiple governance levels. This forms the base for a research infrastructure integrating methods from the natural and social sciences through macroecology, comparative politics, and regional studies. While place-based research using landscape concepts can help develop more sustainable alternatives for land management, scaling up landscape approach initiatives towards landscape stewardship and fostering collaborations among initiatives are paramount challenges.

Applying ecosystem services for pre-market environmental risk assessments of regulated stressors.

Ecosystem services (ES) are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. Investigating the environment through an ES framework has gained wide acceptance in the international scientific community and is applied by policymakers to protect biodiversity and safeguard the sustainability of ecosystems. This approach can enhance the ecological and societal relevance of pre‐market/prospective environmental risk assessments (ERAs) of regulated stressors by: (1) informing the derivation of operational protection goals; (2) enabling the integration of environmental and human health risk assessments; (3) facilitating horizontal integration of policies and regulations; (4) leading to more comprehensive and consistent environmental protection; (5) articulating the utility of, and trade‐offs involved in, environmental decisions; and (6) enhancing the transparency of risk assessment results and the decisions based upon them. Realisation of these advantages will require challenges that impede acceptance of an ES approach to be overcome. Particularly, there is concern that, if biodiversity only matters to the extent that it benefits humans, the intrinsic value of nature is ignored. Moreover, our understanding of linkages among ecological components and the processes that ultimately deliver ES is incomplete, valuing ES is complex, and there is no standard ES lexicon and limited familiarity with the approach. To help overcome these challenges, we encourage: (1) further research to establish biodiversity–ES relationships; (2) the development of approaches that (i) quantitatively translate responses to chemical stressors by organisms and groups of organisms to ES delivery across different spatial and temporal scales, (ii) measure cultural ES and ease their integration into ES valuations, and (iii) appropriately value changes in ES delivery so that trade‐offs among different management options can be assessed; (3) the establishment of a standard ES lexicon; and (4) building capacity in ES science and how to apply ES to ERAs. These development needs should not prevent movement towards implementation of an ES approach in ERAs, as the advantages we perceive of using this approach render it more than worthwhile to tackle those challenges. Society and the environment stand to benefit from this shift in how we conduct the ERA of regulated stressors.

Ecosystem service framework and typology for an ecosystem approach to aquaculture

The ecosystem approach to aquaculture (EAA) considers ecosystem services (ES) important, but does not provide a conceptual framework or a typology to integrate and assess them. To supplement the EAA, a literature review of the ES conceptual framework and ES typologies was combined with selected criteria from the EAA and ES literature. Eight criteria of transition from a conventional approach to aquaculture to the EAA were used as selection criteria to choose a conceptual framework of ES relevant with the EAA. To select a typology, we determined that ES must be distinguished from benefits, be a part of nature, be usable directly and indirectly, and not contain support or habitat ES. The conceptual framework of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is the most compatible with the EAA but does not provide an ES typology. The Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) provides the ES typology most consistent with EAA criteria to supplement the conceptual framework. We identified 10 provisioning ES, 20 regulation and maintenance ES, and 11 cultural ES. Integration of the IPBES conceptual framework with the CICES typology preserves the generic approach of the EAA. This integration could highlight the main interactions among an aquaecosystem, its ES supply, its management, and its relevant stakeholders at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Moreover, it fulfils the three main goals of the EAA by identifying them in a clear and common framework.

The use of ecosystem services concepts in Canadian municipal plans

The potential of land-use planning to implement ecosystem services (ES) knowledge is mostly unfulfilled. Examining how ES concepts are currently applied can provide practical and theoretical insights for supporting their further integration. The purpose of our research was to establish the use of ES concepts in Canadian municipal planning policy. We conducted a content analysis of extant Canadian municipal plans to understand the language used to express ES concepts, which ES are addressed, and to what extent ES concepts are included in planning policies. We found that ES concepts are used to support and justify conventional planning approaches, introduced to deal with emerging challenges, and invoked to support urban place-making. We propose a framework for ES in plans anchored by three imperatives for planning: protect ES supply, mimic and rebuild ES, and capitalize on ES. Approaches for implementing ES in planning must incorporate understanding of the interacting, multiple contexts influencing the design and implementation of planning policies.

Indicators for mapping and assessment of ecosystem condition and of the ecosystem service habitat maintenance in support of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020

A systematic approach to map and assess the “maintenance of nursery populations and habitats” ecosystem service (ES) (hereinafter called “habitat maintenance”) has not yet emerged. In this article, we present an ecosystem service framework implementation at landscape level, by proposing an approach for calculating and combining a series of indicators with spatial modelling techniques. Necessary conceptual elements for this approach are: a) ecosystem condition, b) supply and demand of the targeted ecosystem service and c) spatial relationships between the Service Providing Units (SPU) and the Service Connecting Units (SCU). Ecosystem condition is quantified and mapped based on two indicators, the Biodiversity State and the Anthropogenic Impact. Quantification and mapping of supply and demand are based on the hypothesis that high supply can be activated in strictly protected areas and that a demand is localised in the Natura 2000 sites (N2K), considering them as the Service Benefit Areas (SBA). Wetlands are assessed as SCU between the SBA and the landscape areas where the habitat maintenance ES is supplied. By assessing wetlands as SCU, we intent to highlight their role as biodiversity stepping stones and as green infrastructures. Overall, we conclude that the EU biodiversity policy demand for no net loss and for a coherent N2K network can be met by enhancing the delivery of the habitat maintenance ES. This approach can assist policy-makers in prioritisation of conservation and restoration targets, in line with the EU biodiversity strategy to 2020 and the preparation of the post-2020 Strategy.

An ecosystem services zoning framework for the permafrost regions of China

The degradation of the permafrost regions, resulting from intensive anthropogenic activities and global warming, has led to the loss of ecosystem services and is threating human well-being. Nevertheless, the real ecosystem service values and their complete zoning system in the permafrost regions have received insufficient attention. Research gaps between the identification of permafrost-based ecosystem services and ecosystem management are seriously constraining the development of cryospheric science. Thus, an ecosystem service zoning framework that links ecosystem services with human welfares is proposed to solve the abovementioned challenges in the permafrost regions of China. The three-tiered zoning framework for ecosystem services, consisting of zoning goals, principles, hierarchy, methodology, and nomenclature, is proposed for the permafrost regions of China. A combined method, i.e., GIS spatial tools, the location entropy analysis model, and ecosystem services assessment, was employed to distinguish ecosystem conditions, ecosystem service supply, and beneficiaries into these three-grade ecosystem service zones. Hierarchical and dynamic zoning could clarify protection priorities of ecosystems and ecosystem services in terms of regions, grades, and types. The framework could contribute to sustainable management of ecosystem services in the cryosphere.

Mapeo del valor social en el marco de los servicios ecosistémicos

Los servicios ecosistémicos y su aplicación para la toma de decisiones dependen de un mejor entendimiento del vínculo de las personas con los ecosistemas bajo distintos contextos socioeconómicos y ambientales. Esto ha conducido a un creciente interés por considerar el valor social en el marco de los servicios ecosistémicos. Las metodologías para obtener el valor social son muy variadas, y su mapeo requiere de múltiples enfoques para comprender y explicar de mejor forma el valor social espacialmente. La presente revisión tiene como objetivo proporcionar una descripción del estado del arte sobre el mapeo del valor social en el marco de los servicios ecosistémicos. Se desarrolló una revisión sistemática identificando 27 investigaciones publicadas entre 2011 y 2018 que estudian el mapeo de los valores sociales en el marco de los servicios ecosistémicos. Se encontró que el enfoque participativo es elpredominante en la literatura, variando principalmente en los niveles de participación. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que el mapeo de los valores sociales representa una herramienta útil para comprender mejor las dinámicas sociales y naturales que tienen lugar en un lugar específico y ofrecer un respaldo para la toma de decisiones, por lo que se necesitan más investigaciones al respecto.

A Review of Libyan Soil Databases for Use within an Ecosystem Services Framework

Ecosystem services (ESs) are increasingly being used by many countries around the world as a framework for addressing the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This review article of the usability of Libyan soil databases for ESs and SDGs is the first of its kind for North Africa. The objectives of the article are to: describe the available soil resources of Libya in relation to an ES framework; provide examples of the usability of Libyan soil databases for ES applications (e.g., provisioning, Healthy Eating Plate), and describe some of the typical disservices in the country. Desertification, salinization, and limited freshwater resources are the largest challenges (disservices) for agriculture and future development in Libya. Seawater intrusion in coastal areas due to rising sea levels has resulted in high concentrations of salts in irrigation waters, which can lead to low soil productivity. These challenges can be addressed by integrating Libyan soil resources into a market that transforms resources into goods and services to meet human demand in a sustainable manner, with non-market institutions mediating the interactions between humans and the environment. If Libyan soil resources are taken into account by both market and non-market institutions, it will lead to more efficient use of soil resources and also should enable the implementation of innovative strategies, such as integrated farming systems, non-soil-based agricultural production (e.g., hydroponics), and alternative farming practices.

Mainstreaming indigenous and local communities’ connections with nature for policy decision-making

Exclusion of Indigenous and local communities' connections to the rest-of-nature is a typical problem in policy-decision making. This paper highlights the key attributes of these connections and suggests evaluation pathways to mainstream them into policy development. For this, we integrate and apply the ecosystem services (ES) and human capability concepts. Five socio-cultural and economic values relating to peoples' well-being are identified as the core attributes for developing policy tools: (1) livelihoods; (2) social values; (3) cultural values; (4) spiritual values; and (5) capabilities. For policy tools, common ES frameworks and the relevant ES evaluation techniques that can be applied along with community participatory approaches, are considered. We recommend that developing a pluralistic policy platform is essential to appropriately comprehend Indigenous and local communities' connections with nature for enhancing well-being, not just sustaining livelihoods. A three-step process: (1) identifying attributes of natural systems that are vital for peoples' well-being (beyond their livelihoods); (2) developing locally-specific integrated frameworks; and (3) evaluating identified attributes (monetary and non-monetary), is clearly described in this paper to inform the policy-makers. Recognition and understanding of Indigenous and local communities’ values for nature beyond livelihood opportunities is essential for informing inclusive sustainable development processes and policies.

Citizen science to enhance evaluation of local wastewater treatment - a case study from Oslo.

The paper discusses how citizen science within an ecosystem services (ESS) framework may enhance evaluation of de-centralized water solutions. In a demonstration case in Oslo, citizens were engaged in long-term monitoring and evaluation of two solutions for treatment of combined sewer overflows. The citizens participated in the design of the study, systematic observations, and final evaluation, via interviews and workshops. A wealth of real-time information was collected, supplementing simulation data and water sampling results. The concept of ESS drew attention to benefits that tend to be ignored in standard evaluations. It is, however, most elaborate for ecological services, and less developed for social aspects. Involving the citizens complemented the framework in these areas, while providing new insights into the contextual interactions influencing ESS and benefits of local treatment. Both solutions, a cross-flow lamella settler and a high-rate filtration system, were quite efficient in removing suspended solids, with a strong impact on visual appearance. A range of wider benefits were identified. These were difficult to monetize, but the citizens' evaluation provided an alternative measure. The study highlights the benefits of citizen science in local water management and suggests the need for more research on beneficiaries in ESS evaluation.

Does higher access ensure greater wellbeing? ‒ In the perspective of forest ecosystem services of the Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh

This study presents the effects of access to Ecosystem Services (ESS) on human wellbeing. In order to fulfil the research objective, we interviewed villagers from 104 households who were exclusively engaged in collecting ESS. Data were also collected from key informants, local leaders, and official records. Higher access (HA) to ESS significantly increased the availability of cleaner water for domestic non-drinking purposes. Access to sufficient food, however, was significantly lower across the HA households because of greater involvement in ESS collection. Overall, in this society, HA families enjoyed significantly greater freedom than Lower access (LA) families. Increased competition for ESS extraction resulting from higher access significantly reduced a collector's physical strength and had larger negative impacts on their mental health (self-esteem decreased and anger level increased) compared to LA collector. There were also significantly stronger financial conditions in the HA families than LA families. Greater access encouraged frequent collaboration and cooperation between HA collectors for collecting more ESS leading to a significant enhancement in social cohesion in compare to LA families. Composite wellbeing scores of the respective wellbeing criteria show that only physical health and economic security would significantly improve with greater access to ESS collection. Thus, ESS can have significant impacts on human wellbeing. However, without integration of other wellbeing improvement programs, sole dependency on the ecosystems would cause resource degradation. These results would greatly assist to improve the current framework of ESS and human wellbeing.

Cross-site analysis of perceived ecosystem service benefits in multifunctional landscapes

Rural development policies in many Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries promote sustainable landscape management with the intention of providing multiple ecosystem services (ES). Yet, it remains unclear which ES benefits are perceived in different landscapes and by different people. We present an assessment of ES benefits perceived and mapped by residents (n = 2,301) across 13 multifunctional (deep rural to peri-urban) landscapes in Europe. We identify the most intensively perceived ES benefits, their spatial patterns, and the respondent and landscape characteristics that determine ES benefit perception. We find outdoor recreation, aesthetic values and social interactions are the key ES benefits at local scales. Settlement areas are ES benefit hotspots but many benefits are also related to forests, waters and mosaic landscapes. We find some ES benefits (e.g. culture and heritage values) are spatially clustered, while many others (e.g. aesthetic values) are dispersed. ES benefit perception is linked to people’s relationship with and accessibility to a landscape. Our study discusses how a local perspective can contribute to the development of contextualized and socially acceptable policies for sustainable ES management. We also address conceptual confusion in ES framework and present argumentation regarding the links from services to benefits, and from benefits to different types of values.

Impacts of Climate Change and Urban Expansion on Hydrologic Ecosystem Services in the Milwaukee River Basin

Land use/land cover (LULC) and climate changes could affect water quantity and quality and thus hydrologic ecosystem services (ES). However, studies of these impacts on hydrologic ES are limited by the current methods and techniques. We attempted to find out how the LULC and climate changes impact hydrologic ES at different temporal scales so that decision-makers can easily understand hydrologic ES variations for guiding management plans. In this study, we analyzed the impacts of LULC and climate changes on hydrologic ES in the Milwaukee River basin, USA with a conceptual modeling framework for hydrologic ES. The model framework was applied to a series of climate and urban expansion scenarios. Two hydrologic responses (streamflow and sediment) and three hydrologic ES (water provision index (WPI), flood regulation index (FRI), and sediment regulation index (SRI)) were calculated. Major findings include: (1) Climate change has much larger impacts than LULC at the monthly scale. For example, the impacts of climate change on streamflow were −6 to 9 m3/s whereas those of LULC change were −0.4 to 0.2 m3/s. Also, WPI (ranging from 0 to 1) changed between −0.16 and 0.07 with climate change but between −0.02 and −0.001 with LULC changes. (2) Compared to changes at the annual scale, the results show much larger variabilities as monthly time-series and mean monthly numbers. These findings suggest that the climate change weighs more than the realistic LULC change in term of impacts on hydrologic ES and those impacts can be identified with results at the monthly temporal scale. This approach with the framework and scenarios can better support management planning for decision-makers with detailed results and temporal precision.

Ecosystem services as an inclusive social metaphor for the analysis and management of environmental conflicts in Colombia

Few studies have analyzed the relationships between the ecosystems services (ES) approach and the analysis of environmental conflicts (EC) in Latin American contexts. This article demonstrates the importance of incorporating some aspects of the recent developments in the ecosystem services framework in order to improve the analysis and management of environmental conflicts. We created a general analytical framework with which to identify the links between these two approaches. We also proposed using two key elements in the ES framework in order to strengthen the analysis of EC: a) new perspectives on ES valuation and b) an ES trade-off analysis. We presented our results on two scales: 1) at the national level, we described the general links between ecosystem services and environmental conflicts, and 2) at the local level, we developed a more detailed analysis of these elements based on a case study in Cajamarca, Tolima. We believe that both frameworks can strengthen each other in complex and conflicting contexts such as those in Colombia and in Latin America in general.

“It’s All about the Scenery”: Tourists’ Perceptions of Cultural Ecosystem Services in the Lofoten Islands, Norway

The Lofoten Islands in northern Norway face challenges from increasing visitor numbers, congestion, environmental impacts, and growing host-visitor tensions. Benefits include increased local employment and growing revenues. Future tourism policy requires better documentation of the non-economic benefits and values associated with tourism in Lofoten; this information is important to the development of policy and management processes. We conducted 45 in-depth interviews with domestic and international visitors, using the cultural ecosystem services (ES) framework to ascertain the core elements of the tourism experience, as well as views on management needs and development. We probed reflections on place, aesthetics, recreational opportunities, inspiration, social relations, cultural heritage, knowledge, spirituality, and identity by offering a combination of statements and questions. All these categories of cultural ES were important to most visitors. However, the importance of the landscape was paramount. Policy implications include the need to include landscape in ES assessments, to map places of especially high scenic value, and to use the ES framework more extensively to identify and compare non-economic and economic tourism values and benefits.

A practical tool for assessing ecosystem services enhancement and degradation associated with invasive alien species.

Current approaches for assessing the effects of invasive alien species (IAS) are biased toward the negative effects of these species, resulting in an incomplete picture of their real effects. This can result in an inefficient IAS management. We address this issue by describing the INvasive Species Effects Assessment Tool (INSEAT) that enables expert elicitation for rapidly assessing the ecological consequences of IAS using the ecosystem services (ES) framework. INSEAT scores the ecosystem service “gains and losses” using a scale that accounted for the magnitude and the reversibility of its effects. We tested INSEAT on 18 IAS in Great Britain. Here, we highlighted four case studies: Harmonia axyridis (Harlequin ladybird), Astacus leptodactylus (Turkish crayfish), Pacifastacus leniusculus (Signal crayfish) and Impatiens glandulifera (Himalayan balsam). The results demonstrated that a collation of different experts’ opinions using INSEAT could yield valuable information on the invasive aliens’ ecological and social effects. The users can identify certain IAS as ES providers and the trade‐offs between the ES provision and loss associated with them. This practical tool can be useful for evidence‐based policy and management decisions that consider the potential role of invasive species in delivering human well‐being.

The Suitability of the Ecosystem Services Framework for Guiding Benefit Assessments in Human-Modified Landscapes Exemplified by Regulated Watersheds—Implications for a Sustainable Approach

To support decision-making, benefit assessments have become an obligatory part of natural resource management. In this context, the ecosystem services (ES) framework has been widely adopted for identifying and assessing the values at stake, yet the concept ignores benefits from water and land use functions as important contributions for societal welfare. This paper aims to contribute knowledge for improved benefit assessments in human-modified landscapes, exemplified by watersheds regulated for the production of hydropower. Through a case study approach in two regulated watersheds in Norway, beneficiaries’ perceptions of the benefits associated with key watershed activities, i.e., hydropower production, kayaking, angling, and hiking, are presented. Considering the beneficiaries’ perspectives, we discuss the relative ability of economic, quantitative, and qualitative assessment methods to present benefits. The study shows that benefit assessments must be carried out on different scales of governance, as benefits are context and scale dependent. We argue for an approach which considers a balance of benefits obtained from ecosystem services, and from water and land use functions within ecological limits. The suitability of the ES framework for guiding benefit assessments in a human-modified landscape and its complementarity with the sustainability concept for informing local-level decision-making are discussed.

Conceptualizing ‘sense of place’ in cultural ecosystem services: A framework for interdisciplinary research

In this paper we aim to establish a conceptual and practical framework for investigating sense of place as a category of cultural ecosystem services, drawing upon transdisciplinary research on assessing cultural value and ecosystem change in the Irish Sea. We examine sense of place as a material phenomenon, embedded in and expressive of the relationship between determining ecological conditions of particular locations and the determining social and cultural conditions of human habitation. Our emphasis on sense of place as a material phenomenon contrasts with the prevailing tendency in ecosystem services literature to treat cultural ecosystem services as ‘non-material’, ‘immaterial’, or ‘intangible’, and builds on a call to conceptualize cultural ecosystem services in ‘a more theoretically nuanced approach’ which yields practical means of researching and assessing cultural benefits (Fish et al., 2016a, p. 215). The paper emerges from a transdisciplinary project on ‘The Cultural Value of Coastlines’, which seeks to define a mechanism for integrating materialist research on cultural benefits into the ecosystem services framework. We demonstrate the need for a more significant role for sense of place as a category of cultural ecosystem services, and for research practices which can account for the material and socially-produced nature of sense of place.