Frame Of Reference Model Research Articles

The formation of subject-specific values as a two-step process: Self-concepts mediate the relation between achievement and values

Within the framework of a generalized internal/external frame of reference model, influences of social and dimensional comparisons of academic achievement on the formation of subject-specific values (or related constructs) are empirically well documented for secondary school students. Furthermore, a wide range of theories also hypothesize an effect of subject-specific self-concepts on values. Accordingly, prior studies suggested a mediating effect of self-concepts on the achievement–value relationship. However, these studies have been limited to two school subjects or exclusively math and science subjects. Based on data from N = 1,339 ninth- through twelfth-grade students, we extended prior research by relating students’ grades in mathematics, physics, social studies, German, English, and the second foreign language to value scores in these subjects; subject-specific self-concepts were included as mediators. Our results support the hypothesis of a full mediation of the relationship between grades and values through self-concepts. Additional analyses showed a comparable fit between a mediation model with direct paths from grades to values and a mediation model without these direct paths. We discuss which subject-specific self-concepts are the most important mediators for the achievement–value relationship and the importance of self-concepts for forming values above grades.

Students' social and learning behavior at school: Applying the generalized internal/external frame of reference model

Using data of N = 492 students and N = 142 teachers from 15 elementary and secondary schools, the present study aimed to apply the generalized internal/external frame of reference model (GI/E model) to the relations between teachers' ratings and students' self-concepts of social and learning behavior. Results provided strong support for the GI/E model's predictions but also for some differential relations in elementary and secondary schools: In both educational levels, there were significantly positive and higher correlations between teachers' ratings of social and learning behavior than between students' self-concepts of social and learning behavior. Teachers' ratings of social (learning) behavior were significantly positively related to students' self-concepts of social (learning) behavior, reflecting social comparisons. However, the expected significantly negative relations between teachers' ratings of social (learning) behavior and students' self-concepts of learning (social) behavior were only found in secondary schools, indicating dimensional comparisons. Results supported the invariance of the GI/E model across educational levels.

The formation of academic self-concept and interest in primary school: Examining the generalized internal/external frame of reference model with first- and third-grade children

The generalized internal/external frame-of-reference (GI/E) model explains the formation of self-perceptions and motivational constructs through social and dimensional comparisons. Research examining the GI/E model with primary school children is scarce, especially with first-grade children. Using two fully representative first-grade cohorts and two fully representative third-grade cohorts (N = 21,162; 48% girls) from Luxembourg, we examined the relations between math and verbal achievements and corresponding domain-specific academic self-concepts (ASCs) and interests. In addition, we tested whether the relations between domain-specific achievements and interests are cross-sectionally mediated through ASCs. Positive achievement-ASC and achievement-interest relations were found within matching domains in both grade levels, while the relations between achievements and ASCs and between achievements and interests across nonmatching domains were significantly negative for third-grade children. For first-grade children, the majority of cross-domain relations were nonsignificant, except for the path between math achievement and verbal interest. For school children in both grade levels, domain-specific ASCs were found to mediate the relation between achievements and interests. Overall, the findings indicate that social comparisons play an important role in the formation of domain-specific ASCs and interests for both grade levels, while dimensional comparisons are not as important in the first school year as it is later in the third grade. Gender and cohort invariance were established in both grade levels.

Formation of academic self-concept and intrinsic value within and across three domains: Extending the reciprocal internal/external frame of reference model.

The reciprocal internal/external frame of reference (RI/E) combines two models of academic self-concept formation, namely the reciprocal effects model (REM) and the internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model. The REM assumes reciprocal relations between achievement and academic self-concept. The I/E model assumes contrast effects between achievement and self-concept across math and verbal domains. The RI/E model can be extended to more school subjects than one math and one verbal domain, and to other motivational constructs. We examined an extended RI/E model considering achievement, academic self-concept, and intrinsic value related to math, German and English. The sample consisted of 1939 German secondary school students. The three measurement waves covered Grades 5 to 7. Cross-lagged panel models were used to analyse the data. Within domains, there were reciprocal relations between achievement and academic self-concept but only unidirectional relations between former achievements and later intrinsic values. Across domains, there were significant negative relations between former math achievement and later self-concepts and intrinsic values in German and English, and between former German and English achievements and later self-concept and intrinsic value in math. These findings imply contrast effects across math and verbal domains. The pattern of relations among constructs was found to be generalizable across gender and school tracks and stable across measurement waves. The study provides further support for the validity of the RI/E model and its extension to English as another school subject and intrinsic value as another motivational construct.

The Meaning of School Grades and Self-Concept for General Self-Esteem in Secondary School Students

Abstract: This cross-sectional study with 825 students from fifth to ninth grade ( Mage = 13.01, SD = 1.30) investigated how self-concept domains (physical fitness and verbal) are associated with general self-esteem. Extending the internal/external frame of reference model, school grades in physical education and German (as a subject) were considered as correlates of the verbal and physical fitness self-concept domains. In addition, considering the well-established empirical evidence on gender differences in the different subdomains, measurement and structural invariance were tested across female and male students. Grades, self-concept, and self-esteem were assessed via questionnaires. Structural equation modeling revealed positive relations between grades and the corresponding self-concept subdomains. Physical self-concept had a stronger association with general self-esteem compared with verbal self-concept. Gender stereotypical differences were found only in the mean values of self-concept subdomains and general self-esteem. The results indicate that school grades and the corresponding self-concepts are strongly associated and that physical self-concept might be a salient and meaningful source of general self-esteem in adolescents.

The generalized internal/external frame of reference model with academic self-concepts, interests, and anxieties in students from different language backgrounds

Student motivation and affect play an important role in successful language learning. To investigate the formation of language learning motivation and affect, this study extended the generalized internal/external frame of reference (GI/E) model framework to multiple languages (German and French, along with math) and multiple motivational-affective outcomes (academic self-concept, interest, and anxiety). We examined whether social and dimensional comparisons play similar roles in the formation of students’ self-concepts, interests, and anxieties concerning different languages and whether dimensional comparisons result in contrast or assimilation effects. Moreover, we tested the generalizability of the GI/E model assumptions across students with different language backgrounds. Using a data set comprising virtually all ninth-grade students (N = 6275; 48.0% female) from Luxembourg’s multilingual educational system, our findings indicated (1) clear contrast effects in the formation of self-concept and interest in math, German, and French, and (2) a combination of contrast, assimilation, and no effects in the formation of anxiety in math, German, and French. Using a subsample of 5837 students with valid language information (48.0% female), invariance tests demonstrated that the GI/E achievement–outcome relations operated equivalently across students from different home language backgrounds.

Moderators of dimensional comparison effects: A comprehensive replication study putting prior findings on five moderators to the test and going beyond.

Dimensional comparisons, where students compare their achievements in different subjects, have a significant impact on the formation of students’ subject-specific self-concepts. This research examines the influence of five moderators that have been shown in previous research to affect the strength of dimensional comparison effects: (1) the intraindividual difference between students’ math and verbal achievements, (2) the absolute level of students’ math and verbal achievements, (3) students’ belief in the negative interdependence of math and verbal abilities, (4) students’ perception of the dissimilarity of math and verbal subjects, and (5) students’ perceptions of their math and verbal subject teachers’ diagnostic competence. We examined the effects of all moderators within a sample of 1,424 students in Germany by conducting latent moderated structural equation modeling within the framework of the internal/external frame of reference model. Only two moderators showed significant influences on the strength of the dimensional comparison effects: The dimensional comparison effects on students’ math and German self-concepts were stronger, the more students believed in the negative interdependence of math and verbal abilities, and the more dissimilar they perceived the subjects math and German to be. These moderating effects also persisted if we integrated both moderators into one model simultaneously. Our findings have important implications for self-concept research and dimensional comparison theory, as well as for educational interventions aiming to foster and regulate students’ self-concepts. Moreover, they illustrate the importance of replication studies in educational psychology. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)

Internal/external frame of reference model and dimensional comparison theory: a novel exploration of their applicability among Arab high school students

This study aims at testing the generalisability of Marsh’s Internal/External (I/E) frame of reference model as well as its Dimensional Comparison Theory (DCT) extension in a sample of United Arab Emirates (UAE) high school students. Relationship between self-concept and achievement in Arabic, English and mathematics were explored. A sample of 990 students (532 girls; age 13–20) participated in this research. Arabic, English and maths self-concepts from the Self-Description Questionnaire were used. Results revealed positive paths between the same domains for achievement and self-concept and negative paths cross-domains. Significant negative paths were also found between English and Arabic, suggesting that languages sharing the same alphabet/characters could belong to the same ‘family’ and be considered as a near path, while languages from different families could be a far path. Differences in achievement were in favour of girls, although boys presented higher maths self-concept.

Measuring Comparison Effects: A Critical View on the Internal/External Frame of Reference Model

AbstractThe internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model describes the formation of students’ math and verbal self‐concepts by the joint effects of social comparisons (where students compare their subject‐specific achievements with those of their classmates) and dimensional comparisons (where students compare their math and verbal achievements with each other). To date, researchers have examined this model in dozens of studies. However, these studies have overestimated the effects of social comparisons because they did not recognize that the social comparison effects in the I/E model also result from dimensional comparisons. This article aims to explain this misunderstanding by developing the difference I/E (dIff/E) model, which represents the joint effects of social and dimensional comparisons more adequately than the classic I/E model. Specific findings of prior I/E model studies are discussed, which require a reinterpretation or only become plausible in light of this research's insights (e.g., where researchers compared the social comparison effects in the I/E model between groups). Moreover, empirical data are analyzed to provide support for the validity of the dIff/E model. As a key conclusion, researchers should understand that the social comparison effects in the I/E model do not only represent effects of social comparisons.

A Meta-Analysis of Relations Between Achievement and Self-Concept

According to the internal/external frame of reference model, academic achievement has a strong impact on people’s self-concept, both within and between subjects. We conducted a series of meta-analyses of k = 505 data sets containing the six bivariate correlations between achievement and self-concept in two subjects. Negative paths from achievement to noncorresponding self-concept, indicating dimensional comparison effects, were strongest when the subjects were dissimilar with regard to the math-verbal continuum, reduced but still significantly negative when both subjects belonged to the verbal domain, and near-zero when both subjects belonged to the math/science domain. Additionally, we found stronger positive paths from achievements to corresponding self-concepts, indicating social comparison effects, and stronger dimensional comparison effects for grades than for standardized test scores, and for older rather than younger students. We extend dimensional comparison theory by discussing these results with particular regard to the nonexistence of assimilation effects, the effects of subject similarity on dimensional comparison effects, and other moderators of dimensional comparison effects.

A longitudinal study of Pekrun’s control-value theory and the internal/external frame of reference model in predicting academic anxiety

The present two-wave longitudinal study examined 836 Chinese secondary school students over the course of an academic year to investigate the individual antecedents of academic anxiety in multiple subjects. Hypotheses were based on Pekrun’s control-value theory of achievement emotions and Marsh’s internal/external frame of reference model and tested utilising longitudinal data. Students’ academic self-concept, interest, and anxiety were assessed in Chinese, Mathematics, and English. The results of structural equation modelling indicated that in line with the control-value theory and internal/external frame of reference model, academic self-concept and interest had a negative within-domain effect on anxiety but a positive cross-domain effect on anxiety. Despite stereotypic differences in mean levels, the relations between constructs were gender-invariant. We discuss the theoretical and empirical contributions of the study and make suggestions for future research.

Are dimensional comparisons performed unconsciously? An investigation of the internal/external frame of reference model using implicit self-concepts.

Dimensional comparisons are comparisons of one’s accomplishments between two domains (e.g., comparisons between math and verbal achievements) that affect our self-perceptions in the domains compared with each other. In particular, dimensional comparisons explain the seemingly paradoxical finding, described in the internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model, that students’ math (verbal) achievement has a negative effect on their verbal (math) self-concept (dimensional comparison effect), while controlling for the positive effect of verbal (math) achievement on verbal (math) self-concept (social comparison effect). The present study is the first to examine awareness of dimensional and social comparisons by testing the I/E model with implicit and explicit self-concepts. Using a sample of 795 students from Germany, we measured students’ implicit self-concepts using a go/no-go association task. Students’ explicit self-concepts were measured using common rating scales. Overall, we were able to replicate the I/E model relations (negative dimensional comparison effects, positive social comparison effects) with both kinds of self-concept operationalization, suggesting that dimensional and social comparisons are also performed unconsciously. The effects of students’ achievements on their explicit self-concepts were usually stronger than those on their implicit self-concepts. However, whereas (in line with prior studies of the I/E model) the dimensional comparison effects were significantly weaker than the social comparison effects in the I/E model with explicit self-concepts, dimensional and social comparison effects were equally strong in the I/E model with implicit self-concepts. This finding emphasizes the relative importance of dimensional comparisons in the process of implicit self-concept formation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

The 2I/E model: Integrating temporal comparisons into the internal/external frame of reference model.

The 2I/E model is an extension of Marsh’s (1986) classical internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model. Whereas the classical I/E model describes the formation of academic self-concept by the joint operation of social (external) and dimensional (internal) comparisons, the 2I/E model integrates temporal comparisons as an additional internal comparison process. In the 2I/E model, paths from achievement levels to self-concepts in the same subject are assumed to represent social comparisons, paths from achievement levels to self-concepts in another subject are assumed to represent dimensional comparisons, and paths from achievement changes to self-concepts in the same subject are assumed to represent temporal comparisons. The present research validated the 2I/E model in six empirical studies with a total of more than 20,000 students. Generally, there were strong positive social comparison paths, moderate negative dimensional comparison paths, and small positive temporal comparison paths. Furthermore, the relations of the 2I/E model were replicated with both grades and standardized test scores as achievement indicators (Study 1 and Study 2). Dimensional comparison effects were stronger between dissimilar subjects, like math and German, than between similar subjects, like German and English (Study 2 and Study 3). Also, the relations of the 2I/E model were shown when prior self-concepts were controlled for (Study 4). Overall, the 2I/E model seems to have the potential to enrich future theory and research on self-concept formation and comparison processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)

Supplemental Material for Are Dimensional Comparisons Performed Unconsciously? An Investigation of the Internal/External Frame of Reference Model Using Implicit Self-Concepts

Supplemental Material for Are Dimensional Comparisons Performed Unconsciously? An Investigation of the Internal/External Frame of Reference Model Using Implicit Self-Concepts

Ability self-concept formation in elementary school: No dimensional comparison effects across time.

In line with the reciprocal internal/external frame of reference model (RI/E model), it is well-established that secondary school students generate domain-specific ability self-concepts by comparing their own performance in a domain socially (i.e., with others' performance in this domain) and dimensionally (i.e., with their own performance in other domains). However, developmental theories of ability conceptions suggest that the use of such performance comparisons to evaluate own abilities may differ by students' developmental stage because of important developmental changes between early and late childhood. Yet, to our knowledge, no study has investigated dimensional comparison effects in elementary school longitudinally although this can provide valuable information on the formation of ability self-concepts. Thus, we tested whether longitudinal dimensional effects on changes in students' ability self-concepts occur in the early school years. Ability self-concepts and grades in math and German of 542 German elementary school students were assessed seven times over 24 months from Grade 2 (M = 7.95 years of age, SD = 0.58) to Grade 4. Cross-sectional analyses showed some evidence for dimensional effects of students' math grades on their German self-concepts, but not of students' German grades on their math self-concepts. Longitudinal analyses with latent cross-lagged models revealed no evidence for longitudinal dimensional effects on changes in children's ability self-concepts. Findings indicate that dimensional comparisons are not as important in ability self-concept formation in the first school years as they tend to be later on. Findings underline the importance of considering developmental differences to better understand ability self-concept formation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The developmental interplay of academic self-concept and achievement within and across domains among primary school students

The reciprocal internal/external frame of reference model (RI/EM) extends the internal/external frame of reference model (I/EM) over time and the reciprocal effects model (REM) across domains. The RI/EM postulates positive developmental relations between academic achievement and self-concept within a domain and negative relations across two non-matching domains (e.g., math and English). However, until now, empirical investigations of the RI/EM had only focused on secondary school students from specific countries. In the present study, we test whether the RI/EM also applies to primary school students and to students in the United States, by using a representative longitudinal data set: the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten (ECLS-K: 1998–1999). We found positive reciprocal relations between academic self-concept and standardized test scores within a domain, whereas the effect of prior achievement on self-concept was much stronger (skill-development part) than the effect of self-concept on achievement (self-enhancement). Furthermore, we found negative effects of achievement on subsequent self-concepts across domains (I/E frame of references). Overall, the findings of the study strongly support the RI/EM for primary school students. Our results are compared to previous findings in the literature for secondary school students and are discussed with regard to self-concept formation in primary school.

Academic self-concept formation: testing the internal/external frame of reference model, big-fish-little-pond model, and an integrated model at the end of primary school

Given the significant role that academic self-concept plays in students’ learning, understanding the psychological processes involved in its formation continues to be an important focus of enquiry. There is strong empirical support for two major models of academic self-concept (ASC) formation: the big-fish-little-pond (BFLP) model and the internal/external frame of reference model (I/E model), models which emphasise the roles of social and dimensional comparisons in ASC development. The present study aimed to contribute to an emerging body of evidence on the validity of a model that integrates the predictions of the BFLP and I/E models into a unified framework. Models were tested in the domains of reading and mathematics using data from a nationally representative sample of 4166 grade 6 students in 220 classes in Ireland. Central predictions of the BFLP and I/E models held when tested in combination. Specifically, individual achievement in one domain had a significant positive effect on self-concept in that domain and a negative effect on self-concept in the other domain. Additionally, class-level achievement in a given domain was negatively related to self-concept in that domain, after accounting for the effect of individual achievement. Findings support the hypothesis that social and dimensional comparisons have effects on the academic self-concepts of primary school children.

Investigating the relationship between pre‐service physics teachers' professional knowledge, self‐concept, and interest

AbstractThis study investigates the relationships between professional knowledge, self‐concept, and interest of pre‐service physics teachers. In order to support student learning and interest development alike, teachers need a profound professional knowledge and respective motivational orientations. Developing both professional knowledge and motivational orientations in teachers is therefore a key challenge of teacher education. Prior research has focused on the development of content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) within teacher education, but the role of motivational orientations such as self‐concept and interest have mostly been neglected areas of study. As individuals develop domain‐specific motivational orientations, they compare their achievement in an external frame to the achievement of their peers, and they compare their achievements in an internal frame across domains. The effects of these psychological processes on domain‐specific motivational orientations are described by the generalized internal/external frame of reference model (GI/E model). We assessed the professional knowledge (CK and PCK) and motivational orientations (self‐concept and interest) of N = 200 pre‐service physics teachers from 12 teacher education institutes in Germany. To investigate the predictions of the GI/E model, we utilized structural equation modeling. In line with the GI/E model, the analysis revealed that pre‐service teachers use social comparisons. Pre‐service teachers with a higher CK/PCK also showed a higher CK/PCK self‐concept. We also identified instances of internal comparisons as we found that a high level of CK corresponds with a lower PCK self‐concept. While we could not identify the same effects from professional knowledge on interest, self‐concept mediated the effects from professional knowledge on interest. The results suggest that interdependencies between professional knowledge and motivational orientation should be given more consideration in teacher education research and should also be addressed more explicitly in teacher education.

On the effects of social, temporal, and dimensional comparisons on academic self-concept.

Students evaluate their domain-specific abilities by comparing their own achievement in a certain domain with the achievement of others (social comparison), with their own prior achievement (temporal comparison), and with their own achievement in other domains (dimensional comparison). This article is the first to analyze the simultaneous effects of social, temporal, and dimensional comparisons on students’ academic self-concepts of various domains in experimental and field studies. In Study 1 (N = 120), students judged their ability self-concept after having received experimentally manipulated social, temporal, and dimensional comparison feedback. In Study 2 (N = 924), students had to rate their math and German self-concept and were asked to directly compare their achievement to social, temporal, and dimensional comparison standards. In the longitudinal Study 3a (N = 3,054) and 3b (N = 14,008), the three types of comparisons were modeled in an extended internal/external frame of reference model (Marsh, 1986) containing paths from math and verbal achievement level and achievement change to math and verbal self-concept. In all studies, social, temporal, and dimensional comparisons showed significant effects on self-concept. For each comparison process, downward comparisons with worse-off standards resulted in higher self-concepts, whereas upward comparisons with better-off standards resulted in lower self-concepts. These results are in accordance with the theories underlying social, temporal, and dimensional comparison processes and support their integration into a combined framework. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)

Does Gender Moderate Dimensional Comparison Effects in L1 and L2 Self-Concepts of Secondary Foreign Language Learners?

Introduction. With regard to the interal/external frame of reference model of academic self-concept development the present study aimed at testing its theoretical assumptions within the verbal domain – namely to analyze the relations between achievement and self-concept in the native language German (L1) and the foreign language English (L2). Due to inconsistent re-search findings in this field the focus of analyses was on identifying differential patterns of dimensional comparison processes as they might depend on students’ achievement level in both subject areas and on students’ gender.Method. Data were gathered in a sample of 256 ninth grade students from German innercity grammar schools. For measuring students’ self-concepts two subject-specific scales were used. For measuring their achievement in each language subject latest grades as well as teacher competency ratings were used. Relations among constructs were analyzed by means of a structural equation modeling approach including multiple group comparisons between the female and male subsample.Results. No dimensional comparison effects could be demonstrated. Neither negative contrasting nor positive assimilation effects across both language subjects occured. Furthermore, multiple group comparisons of structural equation analyses lent strong support for the invariance model. Thus, despite significantly apparent achievement and self-concept differences between female and male learners in the L1 German gender did not moderate the relations between achievement and self-concept variables across both language subjects.Discussion. In the female as well as in the male subsample self-concept formation in both language subjects appears to be mainly affected by social comparison effects. This finding not only confirms previous research results in the field, but also contributes to clarify the role of gender in the internal/external frame of reference model – concerning the issue of dimensional comparison within the verbal domain, at least.