Fractional Reserve Banking System Research Articles

Manifestations of Infringement on the Public Authority's General Jurisdiction in Currency Issuance and Management from an Islamic Perspective

Objectives: This study aims to identify and analyse the forms of infringement on the sovereign right of public authority in the issuance and management of currency, particularly in the context of the fractional reserve banking system and the technological advancements facilitated by globalisation, which have enabled the creation and promotion of virtual currencies. Methodology: The study adopts a composite method that combines historical induction and logical reasoning to explore the forms of infringement on the general jurisdiction of the authority associated with both traditional and emerging forms of currency. Findings: The study concludes that safeguarding public authority's exclusive and disinterested right in currency issuance and management is a priority in Islamic legal policy. Such necessitates caution against forms of infringement that violate this right due to their impact on the fairness and efficiency of the monetary system. Originality: This research's originality lies in its characterisation of the generation of credit money and the issuance or mining of virtual currencies as contemporary forms of infringement on the authority's general jurisdiction, akin to the counterfeiting of paper money.

Implementation of Minimum Mandatory Giro (Gwm) in Sharia Banking Perspective Analysis of Siyasah Syar'iyyah Maliyyahtitle

This research analyzesthe implementation of Mandatory Reserve Requirement (GWM) in Islamic banking in Indonesia, with a focus on the duplication of money resulting from the implementation of GWM in Islamic banking, the regulation of GWM in Islamic banking in the view of Siyasah Syar'iyyah Maliyyah, and finding a more just system solution for GWM regulation in Islamic banking in Indonesia. In this research, the researcher used a qualitative research method with a library research type and a philosophical approach. The results of this research show that GWM is a monetary instrument applied by the central bank to ensure the liquidity and solvency level of banks in the financial system. The purpose of implementing GWM is to ensure that banks have enough funds to handle their liquidity needs and to ensure the stability of the overall financial system. Then, the perspective of Siyasah Syariyyah Maliyyah shows that the implementation of Islamic economics in Indonesiamust be practiced according to the socio-cultural conditions in Indonesia. Currently, GWM is something that cannot be avoided, and there is still no new system that can replace it for Islamic banks. Therefore, GWM in Islamic banking is one of the monetary instruments that can control inflation. The existence of GWM in Islamic banking in the concept of Maslahah is at the level of tahsiniyat (tertiary). The debate over the existence of GWM in Islamic banking presents several solutions to provide justice for all parties, including changing the fractional reserve banking system to Narrow Banking, which clearly distinguishes between savings and deposits, emphasizes the principle of amanah, and separates profit-making activities in banking through cooperation with separate affiliate organizations from the bank itself. Because the fractional reserve banking system has been challenged in Switzerland, the solution to GWM gharar is the sovereign money system, which is similar to full reserve coverage, but goes further by giving full control over deposits seen by the central bank. So there is no gharar element. In other words, existing savings "create" loans

The Ethics of Fractional-Reserve Banking System: A Private Property Rights Approach

It is generally stated that the fractional-reserve banking system (FRBS) is consistent with sustainable economic growth and development. While it assumes that depositors will not be a joint demand who will claim all their money simultaneously, it supposes that a monetary aggregate greater than the monetary base will not harm economic performance. However, the FRBS’s call to central banks casts doubt on the sustainability argument and its ethical support. This article explores the FRBS from the ethics of private property, proving a radically different course to promote sustainable economic growth and development. After reviewing and discussing the ethics of private property for the FRBS and its call for central banks, the case of fiat inflation and business cycles clarifies the narrow relationship between ethics and sustainability. These findings are applied to some modern ethical dilemmas around the FRBS, proving novel avenues for policy reform and research opportunities.

A critical legal analysis of commercial bank money

Because of the role that commercial banks play in today’s financial and banking system, this article discusses the activity of commercial banks with regards to how money (commercial bank money) is created. By exploring the nature of the fractional reserve banking system, this article establishes that commercial banks are not mere financial intermediaries, but rather exclusive money creator. A critical legal analysis of this money creation process concludes, with solid supporting arguments, that commercial bank money is riddled with legal violations and harmful socioeconomic effects, which are inevitably borne by the individual and society in the form of ‘privatizing the profits of money creation’ and ‘socializing the losses and its outrageous financial burden’.

Milton Friedman and the Road to Monetarism: A Review Essay

Milton Friedman and the Road to Monetarism: A Review Essay

UANG DAN MONETER ISLAM DALAM SISTEM MONETER GANDA DI INDONESIA

The Islamic monetary system in the dual monetary system has not been able to avoid the use of conventional banking instruments, namely the fiat money and fractional reserve banking (FRB) system and only the profit-sharing system that can be applied instead of the interest system. The purpose of this study is to analyze money and the role of the Islamic monetary system in the dual monetary system. This study applies qualitative descriptive analysis by literature study. The results show that Islamic monetary with flow concept and economic value of time can play a role in the dual monetary system in Indonesia by encouraging investment, production and distribution, as well as the application of sharia contracts and the imposition of zakat. The research is expected to be useful for the monetary authorities to activate Islamic financial institutions in order to increase their role in the monetary system in Indonesia.

A brief note on economic recessions, banking reform and the future of capitalism

In my book «Money, Bank Credit, and Economic Cycles» (1st Spanish Edition 1992, 2nd English Edition 2009) I present a detailed analysis of the Austrian Business Cycle Theory. Now I will concentrate on the financial crisis and the current worldwide economic recession as one of the most challenging problems we must now cope with and the way in which the Austrian Business Cycle Theory can help us to understand its causes and the best approach to economic recovery.
 Having witnessed the intellectual and practical defeat of socialism specially during the last decades of the twentieth century, in my opinion one of the main challenges that still remains for the future of Capitalism is the urgent need to privatize money by dismantling the organ of central monetary planning: the Central Bank. In other words, real Socialism, represented by state money, Central banks and financial administrative regulations, is still in force in the monetary and credit sectors of the so called free market economies.
 As a result of this fact we experience regularly in the area of money and credit all the negative consequences established by the Theorem of the Impossibility of Socialism discovered by those distinguished members of the Austrian School of Economics Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek.
 Specifically, the central planners of state money are unable to know, to follow and to control the changes in both the demand and supply of money. Furthermore, the whole financial system is based on the legal privilege given by the state to private bankers to act with a fractional reserve ratio in relation with the demand deposits they receive from their clients. As a result of this privilege, private bankers are not true financial intermediaries, but are mainly creators of deposits materializing in credit expansions. These credit expansions are artificial and do not correspond to any previous increases in the voluntary savings of the citizens. In this way the current fractional reserve banking system, tends to worsen and amplify the systemic intertemporal distortions and investment misallocations that the macroeconomic planners working for central banks induce in the production structure of the whole real economy. These distortions manifest themselves in the stages of financial bubbles, economic boom, overall malinvestment and afterwards in the stages of financial crisis, deep economic recession and unemployment.

Considerations on Fractional Reserve Banking and Free-Banking

In this article, our goal is to examine a controversy very dear to Austrian economists: that of the legitimacy of the fractional reserve banking system, defined as a system in which the bankers keep in their vaults a quantity of money (narrowly defined) lower than the quantity of cash deposits granted to their clients.
 In the Austrian vision, the monetary supply, broadly defined (Mises, 1971), consists of money properly said, plus monetary substitutes (bank notes, cash deposits), plus credit-money, this one corresponding to any future right to a monetary sum (time deposits, promissory notes, pre-fixed derivatives). In a narrow sense, money supply consists in money properly said (fiat-money or commodity money).
 We must, however, clarify some aspects of the money supply. Monetary substitutes have their origin in the monetary certificates. Monetary certificates, in their turn, are tools utilized to confer information about the medium of exchange. For instance, precious metal coins mintage confers information about the metal’s purity and about the weight of the coin; bank notes and current account balances confer information about the amount, overseer and proprietor of the deposited money. So, money certificates can change the agents’ valuations concerning the particular good in question, even being able of independent valuation. Monetary certificates can be physically connected to the medium of exchange or separated from it. In the case of physically connected monetary certificates, we have what we normally call monetary substitutes. Monetary substitutes can, due to their nature, work as property titles to the very medium of exchange. Contemporaneously, monetary substitutes usually can be identified with cash deposits (current account balances) and paper checks, provided that the use of bank notes is increasingly rare.
 Having made those clarifications concerning monetary substitutes, we will, following Mises (1971, p. 135), call fiduciary media the quantity of monetary substitutes that exceeds the quantity of money properly said.
 However, before proceeding with our Investigation about the consequences of the legalization of the production of fake monetary substitutes (fiduciary media), we must explain what would be a fake monetary substitute and the nature of this counterfeiting. We must, therefore, start our argumentation establishing some differences about the nature of loan and deposit contracts [x].

The Future of Money and the Central Bank Digital Currency Dilemma

In this paper we set out a three-pillar monetary-financial framework to (i) analyze, categorize and compare past, current and emerging means of payment; to (ii) capture their creation and destruction processes through sectoral balance sheet dynamics; and to (iii) identify the inherent risks to the current monetary-financial system, also known as the fractional reserve banking system. These risks, which stem from sudden shifts in money demand and supply, are as follows: (I) risk of a cashless society; (II) risk of structural bank disintermediation; (III) risk of systemic bank runs; (IV) risk of currency substitution; and (V) risk of economic and financial bubbles. This framework will guide the assessment of the central bank digital currencies (CBDC), which are considered as the next step in monetary evolution. We will analyze two large groups of CBDC proposals: (i) proposals aimed at complementing cash and bank deposits; and (ii) proposals aimed at replacing all bank deposits with CBDCs. We find that once CBDCs are issued in both sets of proposals, there is always a trade-off between low levels of (I), (IV), (V), risks and high levels of (II) risk. This trade-off could also be defined as the CBDC dilemma, which states that in most CBDC proposals it is impossible to have both of the following at the same time: (1) low levels of (I), (IV) and (V) risks; and (2) low levels of (II) risk. Finally, we suggest that further research on CBDCs should focus on the second group of proposals on a phase-in basis in order to also mitigate the structural bank disintermediation risk and hence to overcome the CBDC dilemma.

DOES FRACTIONAL RESERVE BANKING SYSTEM EXIST IN INDONESIAN ISLAMIC BANKING?

Fractional Reserve Banking is the banking and financial system that have been applied in most countries around the world. This research aims to look at the impact empirically and at the contributions given from the components of fractional reserve banking against inflation that occurs in Sharia Commercial Banks and Sharia Business Unit. The fractional reserve banking components covered in these studies are statutory reserve requirement, total deposit, total financing, Mismatch Ratio, and Total non-performing financing. This research is using VAR VECM and ECM as analysis tools and also collecting secondary data from OJK that spanned from June 2014 to September 2018. The results of this research have found that Indonesian Islamic bank is doing the fractional reserve banking system (FRBS). Furthermore, the largest contributor of FRBS in Sharia Commercial Bank (BUS) is the Statutory Reserve Requirment while in sharia Business Unit the results showed that Third Party Fund and Mismatch ratio gives the greatest contributions against inflation. Interestingly, the UUS has greater contribution and shock to the inflation if we compare to the BUS. To prevent the effect of it in the future, controlling mismatch and introducing the irrevocable investment account might be the solutions.

THE BROAD CONSEQUENCES OF NARROW BANKING

We investigate the macroeconomic consequences of narrow banking in the context of stock-flow consistent models. We begin with an extension of the Goodwin–Keen model incorporating time deposits, government bills, cash, and central bank reserves to the base model with loans and demand deposits, and use it to describe a fractional reserve banking system. We then characterize narrow banking by a full reserve requirement on demand deposits and describe the resulting separation between the payment system and lending functions of the resulting banking sector. By way of numerical examples, we explore the properties of fractional and full reserve versions of the model and compare their asymptotic properties. We find that narrow banking does not lead to any loss in economic growth when both versions of the model converge to a finite equilibrium, while allowing for more direct monitoring and prevention of financial breakdowns in the case of explosive asymptotic behavior.

Unconventional monetary policies, with a focus on quantitative easing

This article distinguishes between credit easing policies and quantitative easing (QE) policies. The authors argue that there are two broad transmission mechanisms associated with quantitative easing: the Friedmanian mechanism, which is based on the theory of the money multiplier and the fractional-reserve banking system; and the Keynesian mechanism, advocated by Keynes in 1930, which relies on its impact on interest rates. The article also deals with the likely consequences of various incarnations of QE policies: QE done with banks, QE done with non-banks, QE for the people, Corbyn's people's QE and green QE. This is done by looking at the impact of these policies on the balance sheets of banks, private agents, the central bank and the government, and on their consequences for the fiscal balance of the government when taking into account the profits that are distributed by the central bank to the government. It is concluded that accounting tricks cannot modify reality.

Modern Sovereign Money—Part II: A Synthesis of the Chicago Plan, Sovereign Money, and the Modern Money Theory

In the first part of this series, I demonstrated that the current fractional reserve banking system produces a fundamental conflict of interest between private banks and society. The aim of this second part is to describe three radical solutions to this interest conflict. The Chicago Plan and the Sovereign Money approach propose to prohibit private banks to create money by abolishing fractional reserve banking. The Modern Money Theory on the other hand tries to challenge the current economic systems as a whole based on chartalist ideas. All three approaches have serious deficits. However, they are complementing each other well. The Modern Money Theory solves the main problem of the Chicago Plan and the Sovereign Money proposal, whereas the latter two solve the major issues of the former. I will outline a synthesis of those three theories in order to overcome the interest conflict between the private banks and society.

Bank Credit and Capital Formation: The Heretical Views of Harold Moulton and Adolf Berle

The long-standing barriers between commercial and investment banking have eroded, both with and without the help of Congress and the federal bank regulators. The restrictions were originally put into place in the 1930s in response to fears that merging the activities would, and did, lead to fraudulent activities. At the time the legislation was passed, there were those such as Adolf Berle, who believed that the separation would have long term detrimental consequences for the capital development of the economy. Berle argued that if commercial banks could not undertake long term capital investments, then a government owned, nation-wide system of capital-credit banks should be established along the lines of the Federal Reserve System. He based his argument on the theory developed earlier by Harold Moulton of The Brookings Institution, that because a fractional reserve banking system allows lending without a directly corresponding reduction in consumption expenditures, the credit so created by the banking system could be used for investment in capital. Moulton developed his views in a book published by the Brookings Institution in 1935, and Berle presented his proposal in 1939 to the Temporary National Economic Committee (TNEC). The purpose of this paper is to present the views of Moulton and Berle, evaluate their proposal and its relationship to present day proposals for government involvement in public capital creation. Finally, there is an assessment of the political feasibility of such proposals.

Full reserve system and the Maqasid Shariah

The essence of the monetary system today is in using the fractional reserve banking system. Nonetheless, this system is not free of critics such as the fraud of making loans and creating deposits out of nothing which are argued to create distortion to the economy. Since 1930s, many economic scholars have debated the use of full reserve system as an alternative tool of monetary system.Islamic scholars also argue and reject the working of fractional reserve banking system and propose the idea of full reserve system. From the view of Islamic scholars, the full reserve system should be applied to avoid the riba’ in the monetary system. Hence, this study tries to assess whether the use of full reserve system can attain the Maqasid Shariah to support the alternative banking system. Using the argument on fractional reserve system, discussion on the concept of full reserve system, analysis of the impacts of full reserve system and the support from Quran and Hadith, this study concludes that the injustice and riba’ can be avoided under thefull reserve system, hence,attaining the Maqasid Shariah.

Economic stability under alternative banking systems: Theory and policy

In this paper we show in a thought experiment that in an economy where i) investors hold rational expectations, ii) output is generated by a linear homogeneous production function, and iii) real investment is allocated across sectors according to the CAPM, a fractional reserve banking system is not Pareto efficient and amplifies the business cycle. In developing these results we show that these three well known propositions in economics also imply a new view of the business cycle, one where the business cycle is described in terms of the dispersion of an ex-ante probability distribution. The policy implication of this analysis is that bank regulation should go further than the Volcker rule or the Vickers commission proposal by restricting bank investments to currency and deposit accounts on the central bank. Nonbank financial institutions should then carry out the financial intermediation function now carried out by banks. The paper proposes that post office banking perhaps augmented with blockchain technology sometime in the future is one way to implement the transition from fractional reserve banking to full reserve banking. While little academic work has been done on full reserve banking in the aftermath of the Great Crisis, it is interesting to note that it is part of banking reform proposals now (July 2016) before the parliament in Iceland and a special national referendum in Switzerland.

Bitcoin vs. Sovereign Money. On the Lure and Limits of Monetary Reforms

Although indispensable and in daily use, money and more specifically money creation in our two-layered fractional reserve banking system is still poorly recognized by social science at large. Its main features are outlined in order to identify (a) money’s double nature to be private and public at once and (b) inflation and speculative excess as two of its inherent dangers. Bitcoin and sovereign money are discussed as prominent examples of, on the one hand, private or libertarian and, on the other hand state-oriented or social-democratic monetary reforms, each intended to solve one of the two systemic problems our currency order. The new money’s respective advantages notwithstanding, it is shown that neither Bitcoin nor sovereign money can overcome money’s double nature or realize the dream of an eventually neutral money.

How Friedman and Schwartz Became Monetarists

During the late-1940s and the early-1950s Milton Friedman favored a rule under which fiscal policy would be used to generate changes in the money supply with the aim of stabilizing output at full employment. He believed that the economy is inherently unstable because of endogenous movements in money supply under a fractional-reserve banking system. In her work, Anna Schwartz downplayed the role of monetary factors in business cycles and the role of monetary policy as a stabilization tool. We show how the joint work of Friedman and Schwartz from 1948 to 1958 led Friedman to view money as the “primary mover” in the business cycle and underpinned his shift to a rule based on money growth so that discretionary monetary policy would not act as a source of destabilizing shocks. The decisive factor in the evolution of Friedman’s thinking was the empirical confirmation that the Great Depression had been both initiated and deepened by the Fed. The largely neglected influence of Clark Warburton on the evolution of Friedman’s thinking provides a missing — but crucial — link in explaining Friedman’s recognition of the role of monetary factors in the Great Depression and of the Fed’s ability to offset the destabilizing effects produced by shifts from deposits into currency under a fractional-reserve banking system.

Determining the Real Causes of Financial Crisis in Islamic Economic Perspective: ANP Approach

Objective – The purpose of this study is to determine the real causes of financial crisis from Islamic economic perspective. Methods - This study applies Analytic Network Process (ANP) to determine the real causes of financial crisis from Islamic economic perspective to be able to formulate the real solutions to end financial crisis. Results - The ANP results show that the real causes of financial crisis from Islamic economic perspective are Social Instability (EXTERNAL FACTOR), Speculation (MISBEHAVIOR), Ineffective Fiscal System (UNSUSTAINABLE FISCAL SYSTEM), Hedonism (MISBEHAVIOR), Fractional Reserve Banking System (UNSTABLE MONETARY SYSTEM), Political Instability (EXTERNAL FACTOR), Corruption (POOR GOVERNANCE), Interest Rate (UNSTABLE MONETARY SYSTEM), Fiat Money (UNSTABLE MONETARY SYSTEM), and the Wrong Man in the Wrong Place (POOR GOVERNANCE). These main real causes should be removed gradually in order to systematically and gradually improve the stability of financial system so that financial crisis will not reappear again and again in the future. Conclusions - Financial crisis would not happen under Islamic economic system if all Allah’s laws in financial dealings were followed. Financial crisis in conventional economic system could be prevented or lessened by gradually adopting Islamic economic and finance laws and regulations, partly or fully, especially the main pillars of Islamic financial system, namely the prohibition of ribā (usury or interest), prohibition of maysir (gambling and game of chance or speculation) and prohibition of gharar (excessive uncertainty), in their many forms.

How Friedman and Schwartz Became Monetarists

During the late-1940s and the early-1950s Milton Friedman favored a rule under which fiscal policy would be used to generate changes in the money supply with the aim of stabilizing output at full employment. He believed that the economy is inherently unstable because of endogenous movements in money supply under a fractional-reserve banking system. In her work, Anna Schwartz downplayed the role of monetary factors in business cycles and the role of monetary policy as a stabilization tool. We show how the joint work of Friedman and Schwartz from 1948 to 1958 led Friedman to view money as the “primary mover” of the business cycle and underpinned his shift to a rule based on money growth so that discretionary monetary policy would not act as a source of destabilizing shocks. The decisive factor in the evolution of Friedman’s thinking was the empirical confirmation that the Great Depression had been both initiated and deepened by the Fed. The largely neglected influence of Clark Warburton on the evolution of Friedman’s thinking provides a missing -- but crucial -- link in explaining Friedman’s recognition of the role of monetary factors in the Great Depression and of the Fed’s ability to offset the destabilizing effects produced by shifts from deposits into currency under a fractional-reserve banking system.