Late Chalcolithic Research Articles

Combining Geo-Archaeology and Historical Nile Records to Understand Predynastic Settlement Patterns in the Region of the Nile’s First Cataract, Egypt

Abstract This paper aims to contribute new data to understanding early Predynastic settlement patterns in Egypt at the beginning of the state formation process in the 4th millennium bce. It focuses on the early settlements of the First Nile Cataract region. We employ three different datasets to address the issue retrieved from a recent archaeological investigation and drill coring and from Nile records available from archaeological and historical sources. The analysis is performed in a gis-based environment and through inundation modelling. Data suggest early Predynastic settlements at the First Cataract may have been settled all year round. They appear to be deliberately placed above the annual high flood level and have water resources for most of the year. The new geo-archaeological data further suggests that the average high inundation level for the early 4th millennium bce was similar to that documented for the end of the millennium.

Seals and signs: tracing the origins of writing in ancient South-west Asia

Administrative innovations in South-west Asia during the fourth millennium BC, including the cylinder seals that were rolled on the earliest clay tablets, laid the foundations for proto-cuneiform script, one of the first writing systems. Seals were rich in iconography, but little research has focused on the potential influence of specific motifs on the development of the sign-based proto-cuneiform script. Here, the authors identify symbolic precursors to fundamental proto-cuneiform signs among late pre-literate seal motifs that describe the transportation of vessels and textiles, highlighting the synergy of early systems of clay-based communication.

Esh-Shaheinab: The archetype of the Sudanese Neolithic, its premises and sequels.

Esh-Shaheinab is a landmark in the African Neolithic. This site gave the name Shaheinab Neolithic to the Neolithic period in central Sudan, becoming its archetype. Excavated in the late 1940s by A.J. Arkell, it bears witness to the processes of domestic animal introduction from the Middle East into North and East Africa. Its excavation also uncovered the remains of an earlier Mesolithic or Early Khartoum (ca. ninth-sixth millennia BC) and a Late Neolithic occupation (ca. fourth millennium BC), providing essential insights into the Neolithic's premises and sequels. Although the influence of Esh-Shaheinab has been recognized for more than seventy years, our knowledge of its material culture has remained as it was then. In 2001, one of the present authors (EAAG) had permission to restudy the ceramic collection at the National Museum in Khartoum and subsequently export samples for laboratory analyses. Here, for the first time, we provide a multi-scale analysis of the Esh-Shaheinab ceramic material from the Early Khartoum to the Late Neolithic periods by integrating the chaîne opératoire approach into the local landscape. By combining the results of macroscopic and microscopic analyses, we performed petrographic investigations on the composition and manufacturing technology of the ceramic pastes using polarized optical microscopy (POM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS). Organic residue analysis (ORA) was also carried out, to provide information on diet, vessel use, and subsistence practices. The results of our combined analyses showed that the inhabitants of Esh-Shaheinab developed an adaptation specific to the ecological niche they inhabited. They lived in the western valley of the Nile, which was narrower and offered different environmental conditions than the eastern bank. This resulted in partial continuity in manufacturing traditions and ceramic recipes, including more mixed wadi materials and a strong emphasis on wild meat consumption as the narrower alluvial plain restricted animal herding.

Историческая социология сельско-городского развития Дж. К. Скотта: против упрощений

This article is a critical analysis of the historical and sociological works of the American political anthropologist J. S. Scott (1936–2024). His works were largely related to the study of the contradictions of social development between the city and the village. This topic is presented especially deeply and comprehensively in Scott's monographs of his late intellectual period: ‘From the Point of View of the State’ (1998), ‘The Art of Being Ungovernable’ (2006), and ‘Against the Grain’ (2016). In these works, Scott analyzed—practically in retrospective order—several key rural-urban contradictions and paradoxes of social development from the era of high modernism of the 19th–20th centuries to the era of the emergence of the first city-states in the 6th millennium BC. Scott based his analysis on extensive regional comparative studies and interdisciplinary research at the intersection of history, sociology, anthropology, cultural studies, ecology, and political science. The problem of the formation, development, and expansion of state power in matters of regulating relations between city and countryside are core themes of these works. On the other hand—in matters of state-controlled relations between city and countryside—Scott highlights the influence of a third force, a third party: the so-called stateless, unsettled barbarism and anarchy that wedges itself into the regulation of rural-urban contradictions.

Dating the beginning of the Pottery Neolithic in South Iran: Radiocarbon dates from Tol-e Sangi, the Fars

Abstract The Fertile Crescent of Southwest Asia is considered one of the main centers of the first Neolithization worldwide. However, the dating and processes of its spread to neighboring regions have yet to be studied. This study reports new chronological data from the Fars highlands, southeast of the Fertile Crescent. Although the Pottery Neolithic in Fars has long been believed to have started in the late 7th millennium BC, recent excavations at Tepe Rahmatabad have suggested a date half a millennium earlier, raising controversy. Our data from Tol-e Sangi, a stratified site with Pre-Pottery (PPN) and Pottery Neolithic (PN) cultural deposits, support the advent of the Pottery Neolithic at the beginning of the 7th millennium BC. This suggests that despite the late arrival of the food production economy in the Fars highlands, which is dated from the mid-8th millennium BC, subsequent cultural development followed a path similar to that of the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent.

Exploring the acid-insoluble shell organic matrix of freshwater mussels (Unionoida) as a proxy for palaeodietary and paleoenvironmental studies

ABSTRACT The shells of freshwater mussels, commonly found at archaeological sites associated with the Kodjadermen-Gumelnița-Karanovo VI human groups (5th millennium BCE, Romania and Bulgaria), were a significant dietary component for this population. The organic matrix of these ancient shells is often well-preserved and can be analysed using stable isotopes. This study establishes the empirical relationship between the isotopic composition of the acid-insoluble shell organic matrix (AIM) and the soft tissues of modern Unio tumidus. A quality criterion for AIM (C:N ratio 3.6 (3.3–<3.8)) was defined, and isotopic offsets (Δ15NAIM-defatted body = +0.95‰, Δ13CAIM-defatted body = +0.93‰ for soft tissues; Δ15NAIM-muscle = +1.7‰, Δ13CAIM-muscle = +0.3‰ for the adductor muscle) were determined. Our data suggest that the Gumelnița mussels were omnivorous, with a similar trophic level to carp and pond turtles, sourced from diverse water bodies (rivers, lakes …) based on δ13C values.

Rice and its nutritional significance

Rice is a staple food for millions of populations in the world and originated from a wild grass to a crop. The Asian civilization was built on rice. The rice cultivation changed the lives of hunters into farmers. The domestication of rice in India dates back to the 7th millennium BC. Due to industrialization, the traditional practice of hand pounding was overtaken by rice processing mills, which led to the production of white polished rice, devoid of many nutrients. Studies confirmed that higher consumption of white rice increased the risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease, high in India. In the current scenario, the disease prevalence is increasing, and customers are in search of nutritious foods with potential health benefits. This paper outlines the origin of rice and its nutritional value.

Tracing horseback riding and transport in the human skeleton.

Among the most widely used methods for understanding human-horse relationships in the archaeological record is the identification of human skeletal pathologies associated with mounted horseback riding. In particular, archaeologists encountering specific bony changes to the hip, femur, and lower back often assert a causal link between these features and prolonged periods of mounted horseback riding. The identification of these features have recently been used to assert the early practice of mounted horseback riding among the Yamnaya culture of western Eurasia during the third and fourth millennium BCE. Here, we summarize the methodological hurdles and analytical risks of using this approach in the absence of valid comparative datasets and outline best practices for using human osteological data in the study of ancient animal transport.

The southeasternmost area of the long barrow cemeteries of the Funnel Beaker culture in the 4th millennium BC. The case of two newly investigated structures in Pawłosiów forest (Subcarpathian loess region, Poland) in the context of the settlement network

Abstract The eastern part of the Subcarpathian loess region (the Rzeszów Foothills and the Lower San Valley) may now be referred to as the southeasternmost zone of the occurrence of the long barrow cemeteries of the Funnel Beaker culture. In recent times, new intriguing mounds have been discovered in Pawłosiów forest through the utilisation of LiDAR data sources. In order to investigate whether these structures are long barrows built by “beakers” communities, we have carried out preliminary geophysic research, geological drillings, and lithological analysis. As a result, we confirmed the anthropogenic origin of both structures. The main feature registered during the fieldwork was the lithological and stratigraphical difference between the mounds and their direct geological context. Moreover, a presence of an archaeological feature was identified within the frontal part of one of the mounds. These facts, together with key information regarding the location of both earthen structures in the field and their spatial relationship to the nearby FBC settlement at site 52 in Pawłosiów, suggest that they may be relics of the FBC long barrows. In this study, we also discussed these mounds in the context of their spatial-chronological position in the settlement network(s). It is plausible that the inhabitants of Pawłosiów 52 settlement were responsible for the construction of both long barrows in the period ca. 3650–3400 BC. Additionally, we do not exclude the possible alternative (non-funeral) functions and meanings of the cemetery.

One place, many worlds – nutrition strategies of human groups inhabiting the site 3 in Miechów (southern Poland) since the Neolithic until the Iron Age

Abstract Studies on the ratios of stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen constitute a research tool commonly applied in bioarchaeology to reconstruct human diets, including the origins of proteins consumed, the relationship between plant and animal foods, weaning processes, and parameters of the environment from which the food was obtained. Within the comprehensive analysis of the excavation results carried out at site 3 in Miechów (approximately 30 km north of Kraków), isotope analyses of δ13C and δ15N were performed on the human groups that inhabited the site from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. In total, 41 skeletons were investigated. The analyses aimed to hypothesise the nutritional strategies of communities of successive periods and to compare the knowledge obtained with current data and interpretations on food management in prehistoric communities of Central Europe. The results indicate a general predominance of a terrestrial diet, with plant-based foods prevailing, although not conspicuously. However, there are indications of slightly varying nutritional strategies among successive human groups. These differences are related to the contribution of animal protein and the relationship between C3 and C4 plants. For instance, in the Middle Neolithic (4th millennium BC), a greater consumption of meat and/or cereals from manured fields can be postulated compared to the Early Neolithic (late 6th and 5th millennia BC). On the other hand, the proportion of meat in the diet of Early Bronze Age inhabitants (2nd millennium BC) was possibly the lowest in the entire history of site occupation. This proportion returned to near-Neolithic levels in the developed Bronze Age and Iron Age (1st millennium BC). Regarding plant food, the results indicate greater variability in the plants consumed in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Levels of δ13C imply some contribution from C4 plants, that is, millet, during these periods. This aligns with recently formulated theories suggesting the post-Neolithic beginnings of millet cultivation and consumption in Central Europe.

Obsidian and Rock Crystal Artefacts as Prestige Finds Based on Raw Material Resources in Çine-Tepecik

Abstract Within its location on the Çine plain, south of the Great Meander River, Çine-Tepecik is an important settlement inhabited continuously from the Chalcolithic to the end of the Bronze Age. Çine-Tepecik reflects an advanced lithic assemblage based on different raw material resources from the earliest period. Obsidian is among the earliest finds in Tepecik showing interregional trade based on the system of exchange, and is a resource that societies prioritized in their social lives and interregional communication since the beginning of the settlement process. Starting from the 4th millennium BCE until the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, obsidian was obtained from three main resources in the Aegean. These are Melos and Antiparos from the Cyclades; Giali from the Dodecanese and Göllü Dağ, Nenezi and Acıgöl from Central Anatolia. These connections, based on trade with the Aegean and Central Anatolia, reveal a skilled craft of obsidian tool production, as well as an obsidian and rock crystal vessel tradition in Tepecik during the Middle Bronze Age. The assemblage, which has a special meaning among prestige products, belongs to a craft activity that requires skill and experience, and is an indicator of socio-cultural richness. During the 2nd millennium BCE, in the wide geographical region covering Anatolia, Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean obsidian and rock crystal vessels were among the special items produced for the royal or elite class. The stone vessel assemblage reflects the political and economic power of these regions, and also provides an understanding of interregional cultural and commercial connections. In the Çine-Tepecik Middle Bronze Age settlement, the obsidian and rock crystal vessel traditions followed a similar chronological development as the geography extending to Anatolia, the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean, and brings new finds to regional archaeology.

Plant cultivation and diversity at the Early Neolithic settlement in Biskupice in Poland

The emergence of the Linear Pottery Culture (LBK) during the Neolithic period within Polish territory 5400–4900 BC, introduced plant cultivation, yet the definitive list of cultivated species remains debated. This study examines plant assemblages (fruits, seeds, pollen, and spores) from the LBK settlement in Biskupice, southern Poland, aiming to identify cultivated and wild species used during the development of the first stable settlements in the Carpathian Foothills. Due to extensive sampling, Biskupice yielded over 11,000 macroscopic plant specimens, enabling detailed analysis of plant diversity, distribution, and implications for agrarian and dietary practices. The analysis revealed a focus on emmer and einkorn wheat cultivation, with barley playing a minor role, alongside evidence of flax and pulses. Radiocarbon dating supported the settlement’s existence in the 6th millennium BCE, and confirmed the use of barley. However, a younger date excluded bread wheat cultivation at this site. The plant assemblage included a diverse array of herbaceous wild plants like black bindweed, fat hen and brome species, suggesting their economic use. Additionally, the presence of cockspur grass, linked with Southeast Asia, indicates alternative migration routes of weeds in Europe, as supported by radiocarbon dating. Palynological analysis suggests existence of nearby cereal plots or the processing of cereals at the settlement, supporting archaeological evidence.

Revealing ancient technology: a high-energy X-ray computed tomography examination of a Mesopotamian copper alloy head

Although the origins of lost wax casting extend back into the 5th millennium BCE, it was not until the development of hollow core casting that life-sized metal sculptures could be produced. Based on existing evidence, the earliest adoption of this technique, which involves the inclusion of a clay core within a wax model, occurred in Iraq (Mesopotamia) during the Early Dynastic III period (ca. 2600–2350 BCE). To date, only one hollow core casting from the succeeding Akkadian period (ca. 2350–2150 BCE)—the Sargon Head in the collection of the Iraq Museum—has been studied from a technical point of view. The recent attribution of The Metropolitan Museum of Art's Head of a ruler to this formative period of hollow core lost wax casting provided the impetus for its examination by high-energy X-ray computed tomography—the most practical technique for an object that is continuously on display that could image in 3D the interior morphology of this sculpture given the considerable thickness of its metal walls. This scan revealed a markedly different style of production than the Sargon Head. Although further research on early castings is required to determine the chronological implications of the differences observed and to elucidate more generally the early development of hollow casting technology, the scan of the Head of a ruler provides evidence of some of the challenges encountered and problem-solving strategies used in the casting process.

Cranial surgery in the North Pontic region during the 3rd millennium BC.

This study examines the development of cranial surgery in the North Pontic region during the Early and Middle Bronze Age (late 4th and 3rd millennium BC according to the Eastern European chronology). 389 skulls from burials of this period were examined for evidence of surgical intervention. Twenty five such cases were identified and analysed for sex, age, temporal and spatial distribution, size and number of lesions, signs of healing, technique, motivation and complications of the surgery. The study indicates that cranial surgery was a well-developed medical practice in the North Pontic region during the period under consideration. Most of the cases are concentrated in the Dnipro steppe area, suggesting the possibility of outlining another centre of cranial surgery on the map of Europe. The predominant trepanation technique used here was scraping, although alternative methods were also practised. Treatment of traumatic injuries is considered to be one of the main reasons for cranial surgery in our sample. The percentage of individuals who underwent cranial intrusions increased significantly from 1.2% in the first half to 10.4% in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, indicating a chronological shift in the distribution of cranial surgery. This trend is believed to be related to changes in weaponry during the Middle Bronze Age. The introduction of stone battle axes and maces as common weapons led to a significant increase in the occurrence of blunt force injuries, both depressed and penetrating. Trepanation may have been employed as an effective medical treatment for such traumas.

Manufacturing architecture, evidence of pottery production from Tappeh Graziani, Sistan, Iran

In West Asia, at the end of the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, inter-regional exchanges and trades increased, and the southeastern region of Iran played a key role in these trades due to its geographical location. At this point in time, we witness the formation of the largest urban center, namely Shahr-i Sokhta, with countless satellite settlements and industrial sites. In order to educate the students of the university of Zabol and also to examine the cultural, social and economic characteristics of Hirmand’s civilization area, the author excavated the three seasons of Tappeh Graziani, where archaeological evidences of residential architecture, industrial productions and administrative management were found. In this article, an attempt is made to examine evidence related to pottery production in this satellite settlement of Shahr-i Sokhta based on the first season excavations. The pottery kilns show that part of the economy of this site depended on pottery production. The above kiln is closed type with a semi-circular plan, and the reconstruction of the floor shows that this kiln has been used for a long time.

Marble for beads during the Copper Age in Tuscany (Italy): products and techniques

From the beginning of the Italian Copper Age, personal ornaments increased and were enriched with new morphologies. A remarkable production of marble beads began in the central part of the peninsula. However, specific and comprehensive studies analysing this production and its role in ancient communities are still lacking.In order to obtain information on the production and use of marble beads, our study has adopted a broad methodological approach, combining experimental, traceological and typological data, as well as morphometric analyses. Our work focuses on north-western Tuscany (Italy) during the 4th millennium BC, where these ornaments are exclusively documented in burials.The results showed that the archaeological beads were made of local marble, mainly from the Apuan Alps. The beads had different shapes, sizes, and perforations, suggesting different production processes.The detailed analysis of the marble ornaments has revealed traces of prolonged use of these artefacts, providing new insights useful for understanding the cult practices and socio-economic dynamics of the communities of the Copper Age in central Italy.

The impact of climate change upon intestinal parasites in central Europe during the 4th millennium BCE

The Neolithic period in Europe was subject to marked climatic variations during the fourth millennium BCE in the Alpine arc, marking the transition between the recent Atlantic and the Subboreal. This phase is characterized by falling temperatures and rising humidity in the Northern Hemisphere. Within this phase, between 3700 and 3250 BCE, a more intense phase takes place, known as Rootmoos 2 or Piora 2. This phase is characterized by a significant drop in lake water levels. This climatic change had repercussions on lakeside dwellers, notably through the modification and adaptation of their diet and subsistence modes. Intestinal parasites (helminths), found by human and animals via parasitic markers, seem to respond over time to these climatic variations. At first sight, low lake level phases are characterized by significant proportions of Trichuris at the expense of Diphyllobothrium, as well as an increase in Fasciola. These phases therefore seem to favour parasites indicative of agropastoral activities. During periods of high lake levels, Diphyllobothrium increase in number, pointing to a higher frequency of fishing practices. In sum, during periods of cooler/wetter climate, Neolithic lakeside populations seem to focus more on fishing produce, which may be a response to a destabilization of previously established agropastoral systems, marking a return to more opportunistic behaviour with the exploitation of products from the direct environment. This pilot study tends to evaluate if the evolution of parasitic communities in the 4th millennium BCE could therefore be used to complete our understanding of the effects of climatic variations on societies, both as a direct consequence of environmental destabilization (effect on the hosts) and the result of the behavioural adaptation of the inhabitants, even if it is still difficult to determine the importance of the influence of each factor on these variations. Despite some remaining challenges in the current study, the integration of paleoparasitic data into broader paleoenvironmental models appears promising. Future research can continue to develop along this path.

Reconstructing Neolithic obsidian procurement in Western Georgia through an obsidian characterization study

The Caucasus, situated strategically in terms of natural geography and abundant raw materials, has been attractive to the interest of prehistoric hunter-gatherers throughout ancient times. Recent discoveries at the Neolithic site of Makhvilauri in the Ajara region, affirm this historical focus. The Makhvilauri flaked stone tool assemblage encompasses various lithic resources, of which ∼11 % (n = 59) comprise obsidian, a raw material whose closest sources are 170 km away. Using the XRF method at the Archaeometry Laboratory at the University of Missouri Reactor Research (MURR) to elementally characterise 23 of the obsidian artifacts (∼39 % of the total) we can demonstrate that the Makhvilauri assemblage was made from at least five geochemically distinct sources. This analysis not only sheds light on the mobility patterns of ancient communities but also underscores the extensive contacts established during the Neolithic period (6th millennium BC).

Amber provenance as a Chrono-Cultural Proxy: Insights from FTIR analysis in the Iberian Peninsula

In recent years, significant advancements have occurred in our comprehension of amber consumption patterns in the Iberian Peninsula. This progress stems from the increasing volume of FTIR data related to both archaeological and geological amber. Consequently, a chronological model has been established, delineating amber consumption in the Iberian Peninsula from the Late Paleolithic to the Iron Age. Broadly, local amber consumption has been minimal since the Paleolithic period. Sicilian amber makes its appearance in Iberia around the 5th millennium BCE and fades away in the 2nd millennium BCE, giving way to Baltic amber, which has remained the sole source since then.The well-defined chronological model, the abundance of FTIR provenance data, and the infrequent association of amber with absolute or relative dates prompt us to explore whether provenance can serve as a chrono-cultural proxy for amber beads.This study introduces new amber finds, presents fresh FTIR data on archaeological amber ornaments, and incorporates minor updates and bug fixes to the general catalog. It is the outcome of a thorough bibliographic review and on-site analysis and examination of the beads.The results obtained in this study enable the reconstruction of amber consumption throughout Iberian prehistory, drawing on 29 newly FTIR-analyzed ambers from 9 sites. Our findings expand the empirical foundation, facilitating the confirmation of diachronic changes in amber consumption. Importantly, they affirm that amber provenance can indeed be employed as a viable chrono-cultural proxy.

Dating the setting of a late prehistoric statue-menhir at Cruz de Cepos, NE Portugal

The emergence of ‘standing stone’ monuments within the European Late Prehistoric landscape is considered to be associated with a pivotal human cultural transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and permanent settlement, being the earliest monuments currently dated by radiocarbon to the 5th millennium BCE. However, many standing stones were first erected, subsequently collapsed, and then re-erected during the following three millennia. The excavation of the site of an apparently in situ statue-menhir at Cruz de Cepos in NE Portugal provided the rare opportunity in Iberian prehistory to apply radiocarbon and luminescence techniques to establish the date of construction. On the basis of the iconography, the standing stone was assigned to a sculptural tradition of north-western and western Iberia, loosely dated to the Early/Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000/1900–1250 BCE). The optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and dosimetry characteristics of quartz extracted from sediment samples taken from locations associated with the socket pit and surrounding backfilling deposits were examined, producing OSL single grain ages at eight locations. Comparison of the OSL and calibrated radiocarbon ages shows very good agreement, with the mid-3rd millennium BCE dates confirming original erection during the Copper Age and not a much later transformation of the monument. These encouraging results indicate that OSL has the potential to provide reliable dating of depositional processes related to the construction process and is suitable for wider application to megalithic monuments of this type.