Forwarding Zone Research Articles

Energy-Efficient Opportunistic Routing Algorithm for Post-Disaster Mine Internet of Things Networks.

The Mine Internet of Things (MIoT), as a key technology for reconstructing post-disaster communication networks, enables a user to monitor and control the safety of an affected roadway. However, due to the challenging underground mine environment, the MIoT suffers from severe signal attenuation, vulnerable nodes, and limited energy, which result in a low level of network reliability for the post-disaster MIoT. To improve transmission reliability and reduce energy consumption, a directional-area-forwarding-based energy-efficient opportunistic routing (DEOR) approach for the post-disaster MIoT is proposed. DEOR defines a forwarding zone (FZ) for each node to route packets toward the sink. The candidate forwarding set (CFS) is constructed by the nodes within the FZ that satisfy the energy constraint and the neighboring node degree constraint. The nodes in the CFS are prioritized based on a routing quality evaluation, which takes the local attributes of the nodes, such as the directional angle, transmission distance, and residual energy, into consideration. DEOR adopts a recovery mechanism to address the issue of void nodes. The simulation results verify that the proposed DEOR approach outperforms the ORR, OBRN and ECSOR methods in terms of energy consumption, average hop count, packet delivery rate, and network lifetime.

Defense against SSDF Attack and PUE Attack in CR-Internet of Vehicles (IoVs) for Millimeter Wave Massive MIMO Beamforming Systems

The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is witnessed to play the leading role in the future of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). Though many works have focused on IoV improvement, there is still a lack of performance due to insufficient spectrum availability, lower data rates, and the involvement of attackers. This paper considers all three issues by developing a novel mmWave-assisted Cognitive Radio based IoV (CR-IoV) model. The integration of CR in IoV resolves the issue of spectrum management, while mmWave technology ensures symmetry in acquiring higher data rates for Secondary Users (SUs). With the proposed mmWave-assisted CR-IoV model, symmetric improvements in network performance were achieved in three main areas: security, beamforming, and routing. Optimum detection mechanisms isolate malicious Secondary Users (SUs) in the overall network. First, Spectrum Sensing Data Falsification (SSDF) attack is detected by a Hybrid Kernel-based Support Vector Machine (HK-SVM), which is the lightweight Machine Learning (ML) technique. Then, the Primary User Emulation (PUE) attack is detected by a hybrid approach, namely the Fang Algorithm-based Time Difference of Arrival (FA-TDoA) method. Further, security is assured by validating the legitimacy of each SU through a Lightweight ID-based Certificate Validation mechanism. To accomplish this, we employed the Four Q-curve asymmetric cryptographic algorithm. Overall, the proposed dual-step security provisioning approach assures that the network is free from attackers. Next, beamforming is performed for legitimate SUs by a 3D-Beamforming algorithm that relies on Array Factor (AF) and Beampattern Function. Finally, routing is enabled by formulating Forwarding Zone (FZ) based on the forwarding angle. In the forwarding zone, optimal forwarders are selected by the Multi-Objective Whale Optimization (MOWO) algorithm. Here, a new potential score is formulated for fitness evaluation. Finally, the proposed mmWave-assisted CR-IoV model is validated through extensive simulations in the ns-3.26 simulation tool. The evaluation shows better performance in terms of throughput, packet delivery ratio, delay, bit error rate, and detection accuracy.

BDREA Betta and Dolphin Pods Routing via Energy Scarcity Aware Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Wireless Sensor Networks (UAWSNs)

There exist numerous applications for deploying Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs), including submarine detection, disaster prevention, oil and gas monitoring, off-shore exploration, and military target tracking. The acoustic sensor nodes are deployed to monitor the underwater environment, considering the area under observation. This research work proposes an energy scarcity-aware routing protocol for energy efficient UWSNs. Moreover, it aims to find the feasible region on the basis of the objective function, in order to minimize the energy tax and extend the network life. There are three different sensors nodes in the network environment, i.e., anchor nodes, relay nodes, and the centralized station. Anchor nodes originate data packets, while relay nodes process them and broadcast between each other until the packets reach the centralized station. The underline base scheme Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth-Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) for routing is based on the depth differences of the first- and second-hop nodes of the source node. The propose work, Betta and Dolphin Pods Routing via Energy Scarcity Aware protocol (BDREA) for packet forwarding from the forwarding nodes considers the first and second hops of the source node, i.e., the packet advancement, the network traffic, the distance to the centralized station, and the inverse normalized energy of the forwarding zone. It is observed that the proposed work improves the performance parameters by approximately 50% in terms of energy efficiency, and prolongs the network life compared to Dolphin and Whale Pod (DOW-PR) protocols. Furthermore, the energy efficiency directly relates to the other parameters, and its enhancement can be seen in terms of an 18.02% reduction in end-to-end delay when compared with the Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth-Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) protocol. Furthermore, BDREA improves the Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) by approximately 8.71%, compared to DOW-PR, and by 10% compared with the benchmark, WDFAD-DBR, the energy tax by 50% in comparison to DOW-PR, the end-to-end delay by 18%, and the APD by 5% in comparison to WDFAD-DBR.

An Approach for Intersection Prevention in Transmission Channel Using Correlation Matrix and Tree Construction Model in V2X Framework

Typically, the delivery of information in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) is regarded as a demanding one because of high mobility and invariable topological difference. One major concern in VANET framework is the occurrence of simulated intersection at which the packet reception probability become complicated for predicting and the model turn out to be complex highly. So as to overcome this dispute, a new framework is introduced which in turn prevents the intersection among the transmission path. Initially, the system model is initialized and the availability of channel is estimated. Based on the strength and size of data to be transmitted, the availability of channel is computed. After that, the best forwarding zone computation is made for minimizing the redundant data packets flow. To check the priority of packet and occurrence of packet collision, tree construction based data strength transmission is employed at last, the prevention of intersection or collision between the transmission channel is checked by means of correlation matrix based intersection prevention approach by monitoring the neighbor node. Then, the data packets were forwarded in an efficient manner without any intersection between the frames. The performance analysis is estimated in terms of network lifetime, packet delivery ratio, packet collision; inter node collision, throughput, and end-to-end delay.

ОПТИМИЗАЦИЯ ЛОГИСТИКИ В ЗОНЕ ЭКСПЕДИЦИИ С ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕМ ИМИТАЦИОННОГО МОДЕЛИРОВАНИЯ

The paper considers experience of increase of labour productivity in an enterprise with a short production cycle. It underlines drawbacks of analytical methods of productivity calculation. The authors have analysed influence of stochastic processes on tact and cycle time. They have presented a method for optimization of logistics in a forwarding zone with the use of a simulation model. As a result, the authors have considered possibilities of the simulation system for verification of decisions.

Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL in Multi-Hop Indoor Wireless Networks

In home and building automation applications, wireless sensor devices need to be connected via unreliable wireless links within a few hundred milliseconds. Routing protocols in Low-power and Lossy Networks (LLNs) need to support reliable data transmission with an energy-efficient manner and short routing convergence time. IETF standardized the Point-to-Point RPL (P2P-RPL) routing protocol, in which P2P-RPL propagates the route discovery messages over the whole network. This leads to significant routing control packet overhead and a large amount of energy consumption. P2P-RPL uses the trickle algorithm to control the transmission rate of routing control packets. The non-deterministic message suppression nature of the trickle algorithm may generate a sub-optimal routing path. The listen-only period of the trickle algorithm may lead to a long network convergence time. In this paper, we propose Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL, which achieves energy-efficient P2P data delivery with a fast routing request procedure. The proposed algorithm uses the location information to limit the network search space for the desired route discovery to a smaller location-constrained forwarding zone. The Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL also dynamically selects the listen-only period of the trickle timer algorithm based on the transmission priority related to geographic position information. The location information of each node is obtained from the Impulse-Response Ultra-WideBand (IR-UWB)-based cooperative multi-hop self localization algorithm. We implement Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL on Contiki OS, an open-source operating system for LLNs and the Internet of Things. The performance results show that the Collision Avoidance Geographic P2P-RPL reduced the routing control packet overheads, energy consumption, and network convergence time significantly. The cooperative multi-hop self localization algorithm improved the practical implementation characteristics of the P2P-RPL protocol in real world environments. The collision avoidance algorithm using the dynamic trickle timer increased the operation efficiency of the P2P-RPL under various wireless channel conditions with a location-constrained routing space.

A Reliable Link-Adaptive Position-Based Routing Protocol for Flying ad hoc Network

Flying ad hoc network (FANET) provides portable and flexible communication for many applications and possesses several unique design challenges; a key one is the successful delivery of messages to the destination, reliably. For reliable communication, routing plays an important role, which establishes a path between source and destination on the basis of certain criteria. Conventional routing protocols of FANET generally use a minimum hop count criterion to find the best route between source and destination, which results in lower latency with the consideration that there is single source/destination network environment. However, in a network with multiple sources, the minimum hop count routing criterion along with the 1-Hop HELLO messages broadcasted by each node in the network may deteriorate the network performance in terms of high End-to-End (ETE) delay and decrease in the lifetime of the network. This research work proposes a Reliable link-adaptive position-based routing protocol (RLPR) for FANET. It uses relative speed, signal strength, and energy of the nodes along with the geographic distance towards the destination using a forwarding angle. This angle is used to determine the forwarding zone that decreases the undesirable control messages in the network in order to discover the route. RLPR enhances the network performance by selecting those relay nodes which are in the forwarding zone and whose geographic movement is towards the destination. Additionally, RLPR selects the next hop with better energy level and uses signal strength and relative speed of the nodes to achieve high connectivity-level. Based on the performance evaluation performed in the Network simulator (ns-2.35), it has been analysed that RLPR outperforms the Robust and reliable predictive based routing (RARP) and Ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) protocols in different scenarios. The results show that RLPR achieves a 33% reduction in control messages overhead as compared to RARP and 45% reduction as compared to AODV. Additionally, RLPR shows a 55% improvement in the lifetime of the network as compared to RARP and 65% as compared to AODV. Moreover, the search success rate in RLPR is 16% better as compared to RARP and 28% as compared to AODV.

Load-balanced and energy-aware opportunistic routing with adaptive duty cycling for multi-channel WSNs

By increasing the internet of things (IoT) applications, multi-channel wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are widely used as a promising technology. Due to power constraints in WSNs, increasing the network’s lifetime is a challenging issue that must be satisfied in any design, obviously medium-access control (MAC) and routing protocols. In this paper, we proposed a joint MAC and routing mechanism that improves power consumption as well as both end-to-end delay and packet delivery ratio. For the proposed MAC protocol, adaptive sleep–wake scheduling based on nodes’ utilization and energy level helps a sender to avoid multiple synchronization and competition periods for any data transmission. In addition, by prioritizing channels based on the number of competing nodes and channels’ utilization, the proposed method prevents channels’ saturation. Thus, network load will be balanced over different channels. Furthermore, the opportunistic routing is restricted by a forwarding zone to increase the route quality, which balances loads among different next-hop candidates. Simulation results show the performance improvement of the proposed method over the most similar works ( MORR protocol and SLOR protocol).

Forwarding Angles and the Trade-Off Between Reliability, Latency and Unicast Efficiency in Content-Based Beaconless Forwarding

Receiver-based routing protocols are well suited for the Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs) due to their ability that can make a routing decision on the fly. Forwarding zone is one of the key features in the receiver-based routing protocols in which a forwarding angle associated with a forwarding zone has a significant impact on the routing performance. However, the existing studies in this area have not focused much on the impact of a forwarding angle to the performance of the receiver-based routing protocols. This article presents a receiver-based routing protocol called Content-Based Beaconless Forwarding (CBBF) that utilizes the content in the header of a data packet while performing the routing operation. Specifically, CBBF uses location information to set a forwarding zone and the waiting time criterion. At the same time, other fields of the data packet’s header are utilized to facilitate various mechanisms involved in the operation of CBBF. The impact of varying forwarding angles on the performance of CBBF is then studied and analyzed via simulations using QualNet. The simulations are carried out by varying the source transmission rate, node density and node velocity. The performance is evaluated in terms of packet delivery ratio (PDR), average end-to-end (ETE) delay and packet redundancy coefficient (PRC). From the simulation results, the CBBF with a forwarding angle of 60° offers the best trade-off between reliability, latency and unicast efficiency.

FZ enabled Multi-objective PSO for multicasting in IoT based Wireless Sensor Networks

Real-time services for IoT enabled Disastrous Management Scenarios (DMSs), multicast routing problem has attracted many researchers due to its NP-hard behaviour. The objective is to find a Steiner Tree (S-tree) satisfying the essential constraints. To solve complex problems with minimal overhead and better convergence, Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) has been widely applied to solve such optimization problems. Data dissemination in DMS poses QoS aware multicast routing as a multi-objective search optimization problem. Conventional Multi-Objective PSO (MOPSO) algorithm has been used to solve multicast routing problem considering multi-objectives i.e., power consumption, delay, and packet loss. However, it consumes more computation power and energy due to iterative searching in complete multidimensional search space and also because of a generic method which converts invalid to valid solutions (S-trees). In this paper, a Forwarding Zone (FZ) enabled MOPSO (FZMOPSO) is proposed which acts in FZ to search the valid solution irrespective of complete search space. An FZ enabled Valid Particle Generator (FZVPG) operator is proposed and integrated with FZMOPSO to convert invalid to valid particles effectively. The performance of FZMOPSO is evaluated considering twelve different network scenarios and the results are compared with several state-of-the-art algorithms. Experimental results evidenced the effectiveness of FZMOPSO.

A robust forwarding node selection mechanism for efficient communication in urban VANETs

In an urban VANET scenario, more number of obstacles like buildings or other roadside constructions are present. For these obstacles, the radio propagation may get affected which leads to poor network performance. To deal with this situation, a new approach is required which is primarily contingent on an obstacle avoidance algorithm, capable of finding the optimized shortest path, along with a potential forwarding vehicle selection strategy to route the packets efficiently. As a solution, this paper proposes a robust forwarding node selection mechanism for efficient communication between vehicles. For this, at first a path is selected avoiding the obstacles with the help of Delaunay Triangulation. Then that path is optimized by removing Torricelli points, priorly placed inside the Delaunay Triangulation. After that a forwarding zone is selected in that optimized shortest path. On that forwarding zone, a robust node is selected using fuzzy logic for efficient data dissemination. Extensive simulation results disclose that the proposed solution outperforms the present methods with respect to throughput, PDR, end-to-end delay and hop-count.

Forwarding Zone enabled PSO routing with Network lifetime maximization in MANET

Network lifetime maximization is one of the most sought after issues in Mobile Adhoc Networks (MANETs). Whereas, due to geographical routing based approaches, the packet transmission becomes more suitable in dynamic environment such as MANETs. Direct heuristics are not suitable in such scenarios to provide desired solution as the problem becomes NP-hard in dense networks, thus researchers focused to utilize meta-heuristic techniques. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is one of the most effective meta-heuristic techniques to solve such problems with near optimal solution. However, meta-heuristic techniques (PSO) become slow in convergence and require more computational time when network size increases. Therefore, in this work, PSO is adaptively modified (APSO) to best fit in our scenario, and re-enforced using Forwarding Search Space (FSS) heuristic technique to overcome the PSO’s convergence and computational time related issues, significantly improves the performance of PSO. In FSS, a Forwarding Zone (FZ) is selected between source and destination such that the optimal solution lies in that area and APSO is applied for an effective routing in FZ area instead of complete network. To utilize the complementary characteristics of both (APSO and FSS), a hybrid FZ-APSO is proposed for routing in dense network with minimum delay and energy consumption in order to increase the lifetime of the network. Comparative simulation results evidenced that the proposed FZ-APSO routing algorithm significantly improved the performance of the routing in terms of energy consumption, end to end delay, computational time and network lifetime.

A Self-Adaptive and Link-Aware Beaconless Forwarding Protocol for VANETs

With the development of networks, Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs) which act as the emerging application enhance the potential power of networks on the traffic safety and the entertainment. However, the high mobility and the dynamic nature of VANETs lead to the unreliable link which causes unreachable transmission and degrades the performance of the routing protocol in terms of the quality of experience (QoE). To provide a reliable routing for the data transmission, a self-adaptive and link-aware beaconless forwarding (SLBF) protocol is proposed. Based on the receiver based forwarding (RBF) scheme, SLBF designs a self-adaptive forwarding zone which is used to make the candidate nodes accurate. Furthermore, it proposes a comprehensive algorithm to calculate the waiting time by taking the greedy strategy, link quality, and the traffic load into account. With the NS-2 simulator, the performance of SLBF is demonstrated. The results show that the SLBF makes a great improvement in the delivery ratio, the end-to-end delay, and the average hops.

Hybrid Flooding Scheme for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

A hybrid broadcast scheme for mobile wireless networks is proposed in this letter. The main objective is to combine different flooding schemes in order to solve the broadcast storm issue encountered by the simple flooding scheme. For this purpose, the density of nodes is taken into account using a density metric called expansion metric. In addition, in order to reduce the broken links due to mobility of nodes and increasing dissimilarity among the intermediate nodes, a forwarding zone criterion is included in the proposed schemes. The proposed approaches have been implemented and compared with pure probabilistic flooding, and simple flooding schemes.

A Real-Time Directed Routing Protocol Based on Projection of Convex Holes on Underwater Acoustic Networks

The directed routing protocol ends in failure when it faces a situation of the destination node with a very low velocity in a sparse ad hoc network so that none of nodes exist in its forwarding zone. Illuminated by BFDREAM and ZONER, the paper firstly proposes a novelty routing protocol that is fairly immune to forwarding failure through projecting the present source node on the boundaries of convex baffle holes of underwater acoustic networks in deep sea. Compared with DREAM and BFDREAM, the experimental results show our protocol achieves a great improvement in decreasing the propagation delay and reducing quantities of the non-effect information. So the new protocol may have a bright application prospect in deep sea acoustic networks.

An Underwater Acoustic Routing protocol based on Hole Projecton

The directed routing protocol ends in failure when it faces a situation of the destination node with a very low velocity in a sparse ad hoc network so that none of nodes exist in its forwarding zone. Illuminated by BFDREAM and ZONER, the paper firstly proposes a novelty routing protocol that is fairly immune to forwarding failure through projecting the present source node on the boundaries of baffle holes of underwater acoustic networks in deep sea. Compared with DREAM and BFDREAM, the experimental results show our protocol achieves a great improvement in decreasing the propagation delay and reducing quantities of the non-effect information. So the new protocol may have a bright application prospect in deep sea acoustic networks.

HVE-mobicast: a hierarchical-variant-egg-based mobicast routing protocol for wireless sensornets

In this paper, we propose a new mobicast routing protocol, called the HVE-mobicast (hierarchical-variant-egg-based mobicast) routing protocol, in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Existing protocols for a spatiotemporal variant of the multicast protocol called a "mobicast" were designed to support a forwarding zone that moves at a constant velocity, $\stackrel{\rightarrow}{v}$ , through sensornets. The spatiotemporal characteristic of a mobicast is to forward a mobicast message to all sensor nodes that are present at time t in some geographic zone (called the forwarding zone) Z, where both the location and shape of the forwarding zone are a function of time over some interval (t start ,t end ). Mobicast routing protocol aims to provide reliable and just-in-time message delivery for a mobile sink node. To consider the mobile entity with the different moving speed, a new mobicast routing protocol is investigated in this work by utilizing the cluster-based approach. The message delivery of nodes in the forwarding zone of the HVE-mobicast routing protocol is transmitted by two phases; cluster-to-cluster and cluster-to-node phases. In the cluster-to-cluster phase, the cluster-head and relay nodes are distributively notified to wake them up. In the cluster-to-node phase, all member nodes are then notified to wake up by cluster-head nodes according to the estimated arrival time of the delivery zone. The key contribution of the HVE-mobicast routing protocol is that it is more power efficient than existing mobicast routing protocols, especially by considering different moving speeds and directions. Finally, simulation results illustrate performance enhancements in message overhead, power consumption, needlessly woken-up nodes, and successful woken-up ratio, compared to existing mobicast routing protocols.

LA-Mobicast: A Learning Automata Based Mobicast Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks

The spatiotemporal character of mobicast in sensor networks relates to obligation to deliver a message to all the nodes that will be present at time t in some geographic zone Z, where both the location and the shape of the delivery zone are the functions of time over some interval ( , ) start end t t . In this paper a learning automata based mobicast protocol for sensor networks to support applications which require spatiotemporal coordination has been proposed. The proposed protocol which we call it LA-Mobicast uses the shape and the size of the forwarding zone to achieve high predicted accuracy. The proposed protocol use learning automata to adaptively determine the location and the shape of the forwarding zone in such away that the same number of wake-up sensor nodes be maintained. The proposed protocol is a fully distributed algorithm which requires lesser communication overhead in determining the forwarding zone and the mobicast message forwarding overhead. In order to show the performance of the proposed protocol, computer simulations have been conducted and the results obtained are compared with the results obtained for five existing mobicast protocols. The results of comparison show that the proposed protocol outperforms existing mobicast protocols in terms of slack time, message exchange, node involved and guarantee percent.

VE-mobicast: a variant-egg-based mobicast routing protocol for sensornets

In this paper, we present a new "spatiotemporal multicast", called a "mobicast", protocol for supporting applications which require spatiotemporal coordination in sensornets. The spatiotemporal character of a mobicast is to forward a mobicast message to all sensor nodes that will be present at time t in some geographic zone (called the forwarding zone) Z, where both the location and shape of the forwarding zone are a function of time over some interval (tstart, tend). The mobicast is constructed of a series of forwarding zones over different intervals (tstart, tend), and only sensor nodes located in the forwarding zone in the time interval (tstart, tend) should be awake in order to save power and extend the network lifetime. Existing protocols for a spatiotemporal variant of a multicast system were designed to support a forwarding zone that moves at a constant velocity, v, in sensornets. To consider the path of a mobile entity which includes turns, this work mainly develops a new mobicast routing protocol, called the variant-egg-based mobicast (VE-mobicast) routing protocol, by utilizing the adaptive variant-egg shape of the forwarding zone to achieve high predictive accuracy. To illustrate the performance achievement, a mathematical analysis is conducted and simulation results are examined.