Formal Tools Research Articles

Trend Modelling as a Support of Managerial Decision-Making Process in Relation to Customers

The issue of managerial decision-making in relation to customers plays a significant role in any enterprise. Managerial decisions are often based on input information that is difficult to quantify. Therefore, common statistical methods cannot be easily used. A trend is the least informative quantifier. The goal of the paper is to present a new formal tool of the managerial decision-making process based on the trend model. This tool is demonstrated using the following variables: word of mouth, electronic word of mouth, brand trust, consumer experience and consumer price perception. These variables were chosen from scientific papers that confirmed a relationship among them. A trend analysis of the model involves assessing the relevant group of particular situations. The model’s predictions can be described as a sequence of these scenarios. The findings show that the trend model is a powerful and suitable tool in the managerial decision-making process.

Air pollution in major Polish cities in the period 2005–2021: Intensity, effects and attempts to reduce it

Air quality in Poland is among the lowest in Europe due to high emissions of harmful substances. This causes the development of diseases and leads to a high number of premature deaths. Particularly high pollution occurs in parts of urban areas. The most serious problem is unregulated emissions from buildings and vehicles. That is why it is so important to take action to improve air quality at the local level. The study assessed changes in the concentrations of NO2, O3, PM10, PM2.5 and benzo(a)pyrene in 11 major Polish cities between 2005 and 2021. In 2021 average levels were: NO2 - 25 μg/m3, O3 - 45 μg/m3, PM10 - 26 μg/m3, PM2.5 -17 μg/m3, benzo(a)pyrene - 2.1 ng/m3. The highest exceedances of WHO standards over the studied period were for PM2.5, followed by NO2 and PM10. The annual average levels fell by 17% for NO2 and by 18% for PM10 between 2005 and 2021, and by 34% for PM2.5 and 27% for benzo(a)pyrene between 2010 and 2021. The most polluted cities are Kraków, Katowice and Łódź. The highest concentrations of pollutants typically occurred in 2006 and 2011, the lowest in 2020. Strategic documents and programmes that formulate objectives for reducing emissions and improving air quality were evaluated. Policy documents enable numerous measures to improve air quality. Plans are not always effectively implemented due to a lack of formal tools and financial resources.

Knowledge Transfer as a Driver of Innovative Performance of SMEs in Lagos State

Purpose: The ability to disseminate knowledge in the presence of innovation and capability in businesses creates an advantage over other businesses. Most SMEs do not implement formal tools to protect and share needed knowledge, which makes knowledge transfer difficult.
 Design/Method/Approach: Quantitative research was adopted. With over eleven (11) thousand registered SMEs in Lagos State and using Yamane’s formula, a total of 386 respondents formed the sample size for this study.
 Findings: The study established a positive significance of social networking, mentorship and research and development for innovation performance. However, training revealed no impact on innovation performance which further established that most SMEs operators in Nigeria usually improve business skills through apprenticeship instead of an organized training to transfer knowledge.
 Theoretical Implications: The absorptive capacity theory was adopted to explain the importance of enriching organizational learning by the acquisition of diverse knowledge from different sources to enhance capabilities. It also depicts the impact of technological innovation performance through general abilities of an individual.
 Practical Implications: The study emphasized that the survival and competitiveness of any business entity in an evolving global environment is dependent on its implementation of continuous innovative improvements through knowledge transfer, but of all knowledge transfer methods, training is the least used method by business owners.
 Originality/Value: This paper assesses the significance of knowledge transfer as a driver of innovation performance in Nigerian SMEs using such methods as training, mentorship, research and development and social networking employed by SMEs.
 Research Limitations/Future Research: One major limitation to the study was the inability and unwillingness of SMEs owners and managers to fill in a questionnaire.
 Paper Type: Empirical
 JEL Classification: M10, M13

Decision-making as discovery: Vetting clinical research in a leading precision oncology service.

Based on fieldwork carried out at the Early Drug Development Service of a world-leading cancer institution, our study sheds lights on decision-making processes at the stage where decisions are made about which clinical trial to pursue and thus which experimental drugs will feed the growing pipeline of molecularly guided therapies and therapeutic strategies available to treating physicians. The paper shows how such collective decision-making practices by a translational research unit employ formal tools and ad hoc valuation strategies that interweave technical-scientific matters of concern with patient-oriented clinical ones, as part of the institutional assetization of biomedical knowledge production. In the process, decision-making practices in part define the conditions of possibility for the provision of care in what is increasingly becoming a 'clinic of variants.' They do so by reconfiguring on an evolving basis the socio-material ecosystem through which precision oncology is enacted as a rapidly evolving assemblage of patients, physicians, research and support staff, protocols, molecular markers, drugs and administrative components.

An Early Bronze Age stone tool assemblage from al-Badʿ Oasis in northern Arabia: a technological and functional analysis

Archaeological research on the 4th millennium BCE throughout the Levant has shown how craft specialization, extended trade and supply routes, as well as increased social stratification, established the foundation for the urban Early Bronze Age formation process in the third quarter of the 4th millennium BCE. The specific context of northern Arabia, along the fringes of the fertile crescent, remains, on the contrary, largely unexplored. In this paper lithic finds from an Early Bronze I village, named al-Rudaydah in al-Badʿ Oasis, situated in north-western Saudi Arabia, near the Red Sea, are presented. All the stone tool artefacts, over 100 lithics, found in a rectangular drystone masonry dwelling, were subjected to technological and traceological analyses. Most of the artefacts are small chips and flakes resulting from tool maintenance and recycling. Formal tools include so-called tabular scrapers and trapezoidal blade segments with gloss. The results show that the scrapers were likely imported as blanks or ready-made tools, the glossy artefacts were likely sickle insets.

Small tool production in the Howiesons Poort: a view from Montagu Cave, South Africa

ABSTRACT In southern Africa, the Howiesons Poort is one of the earliest technocomplexes in which small blades and bladelets were systematically produced and retouched into formal tools. While the presence of small lithic artefacts in an assemblage is well-documented, little is known about production pathways. This paper reports on the analysis of the lithic assemblage from Horizon 6/7 of Charles Keller’s excavations of Montagu Cave, South Africa, to evaluate how raw material and decision-making affects the size of stone tools in Howiesons Poort assemblages. It addresses the following questions: how were small blades produced? Was it a deliberate choice or a constraint imposed by raw material availability? Results show branching modes of production for large and small blanks beginning with raw material acquisition. The independent production of small blanks is reinforced by the presence of cores on flakes in the assemblage. However, a relatively standardised core reduction process was used consistently, regardless of core size. The main technological and typological features observed in Horizon 6/7 are in line with other known Howiesons Poort assemblages. Considered as a whole, these observations highlight the consistency of Howiesons Poort blade technology and the deliberate production of small blanks and tools.

Monetary Circuit Theory, Stock-Flow Consistent Modeling and Parguez’s Analysis

Stock-flow consistent (SFC) modeling goes far beyond simple formal tools. It rests on strong post-Keynesian hypotheses and proposes a new conceptual framework for formalization. This being said, if its affiliation with post-Keynesianism is obvious, SFC models are in line with many elements of the monetary circuit theory (MCT), as developed notably by Alain Parguez. Indeed, MCT has deeply studied macroeconomics and the link between money and production. More precisely, both SFC models and MCT offer an analysis in terms of national accounting, in which money is endogenized through the financing of the economy, and more precisely through the financing of production. Even if MCT has lost its vigor, its fundamental principles are still present through the SFC modeling.

Correctness of IoT-based systems: From a DSL to a mechanised analysis

Systems based on the Internet of Things are being widely used in industrial areas such as smart manufacturing, in smart health monitoring, in entertainment and in home automation application. They impact more and more every day life. Ensuring their correct construction, their well functioning and their reliability is an important issue for some of these systems which can be critical in case of dysfunction. The main requirements on physical architectures and control software are common to most of IoT-based systems. We propose, on the basis of the common architectural properties and the behaviour of IoT-based systems, the rigorous analysis of their intrinsic consistency properties; specific properties may also be considered and analysed.We propose a model-based approach to help in systematically modelling and analysing these systems. Our approach focuses both on the formalisation of the model of the targeted systems for their rigorous analysis purpose, and on the design of a modelling language as a domain specific language dedicated to describe IoT-based systems. We build a generic formal model which captures the common features and the properties required for any IoT-based system. This formal model is then a parametrised model where the parameters are the specific data and properties of a given system. The proposed DSL, named τila , is used to describe an IoT system which will be submitted to formal analysis of correctness. τila is a tiny declarative language, extensible, based on a library of building component blocks available as types.In fact, a description in τila helps to model a system, by collecting the parameters necessary to instantiate the generic formal model. Therefore the analysis requirements are based on the generic model. We experimented our approach using the proposed τila DSL for modelling and the Event-B framework for the formal analysis. The overall proposed approach is accompanied by a model editor generated to assist users in modelling an application and a prototype tool we have developed to assist the users in analysing their systems. Examples are provided.The generic formal model is extensible; it may be profitably adapted to more general hybrid or cyber–physical systems. Moreover, our generic model is independent of the target formal modelling tools; it may be implemented in various other formal analysis environments.

Orthorexia and Orthorexia Nervosa: A Comprehensive Examination of Prevalence, Risk Factors, Diagnosis, and Treatment.

Orthorexia nervosa is an emerging and controversial eating disorder characterized by an obsessive preoccupation with healthy eating and an extreme fixation on food purity. Despite growing public interest in orthorexia, its classification as a distinct eating disorder remains a subject of ongoing debate in the mental health community. This paper comprehensively reviews the current literature on orthorexia nervosa, exploring the prevalence rates, risk factors, diagnosis, and treatment options. The paper offers an overview of orthorexia and its historical context and explores the challenges and considerations in diagnosing orthorexia and orthorexia nervosa. Specifically, the distinction between "orthorexia" and "orthorexia nervosa" is a debated issue in eating disorder research due to a lack of clear diagnostic criteria, making it challenging to accurately differentiate between an obsession with healthy eating and a more severe form with potential distress and impairment. Given the absence of formal diagnostic criteria, developing valid and reliable assessment tools is crucial to accurately identify and treat individuals experiencing these disorders. The paper's final section covers the existing treatment approaches for orthorexia nervosa. Overall, the paper highlights the complex and multifaceted nature of orthorexia nervosa. This review contributes to the ongoing discourse surrounding orthorexia and provides valuable insights for clinicians, researchers, and stakeholders in the mental health and eating disorders fields.

Regional ochre procurement in the prehistoric American Bottom

Ochre has been used for a variety of cultural items worldwide including its use as pigments, polishing tools, medicines, and formal lithic tools such as axes and plummets. Though ochre use in prehistoric North America was commonplace, geochemical analyses of archaeological assemblages typically have focused upon ceramics and stone tools, with ochre treated as a secondary artifact. In the American Bottom, recent limited studies have investigated ochre usage in Late Archaic (3000 – 1000 BCE) and Middle Woodland (150 BCE – 400CE) contexts with inconclusive results. However, the authors suggested that archaeological ochres found in East Central Missouri may have originated within the Meramec River Valley. In this current study, data from previous archaeological and source ochre analyses are combined with similarly dated artifacts from the Verkamp Rockshelter in the Meramec River Valley and additional archaeological samples from five sites in the region. To establish a regional assessment, neutron activation analysis (NAA) and multivariate statistical analysis was utilized to examine geochemical relationships across the region. Results identified distinct compositional differences between archaeological samples from the St. Louis region versus samples collected at Verkamp Rockshelter. Beyond this, no other correlations could be found between chemistry and collection locale. When compared to the available geological source samples from the area, the archaeological samples from the St. Louis region remain distinct, while Meramec River Valley deposits are somewhat compositionally similar to artifacts from Verkamp Rockshelter. This suggests differential acquisition between the two areas.

Mechanising Gödel–Löb Provability Logic in HOL Light

We introduce our implementation in HOL Light of the metatheory for Gödel–Löb provability logic (GL), covering soundness and completeness w.r.t. possible world semantics and featuring a prototype of a theorem prover for GL itself. The strategy we develop here to formalise the modal completeness proof overcomes the technical difficulty due to the non-compactness of GL and is an adaptation—according to the formal language and tools at hand—of the proof given in George Boolos’ 1995 monograph. Our theorem prover for GL relies then on this formalisation, is implemented as a tactic of HOL Light that mimics the proof search in the labelled sequent calculus textsf{G3KGL}, and works as a decision algorithm for the provability logic: if the algorithm positively terminates, the tactic succeeds in producing a HOL Light theorem stating that the input formula is a theorem of GL; if the algorithm negatively terminates, the tactic extracts a model falsifying the input formula. We discuss our code for the formal proof of modal completeness and the design of our proof search algorithm. Furthermore, we propose some examples of the latter’s interactive and automated use.

Realism and the point at infinity: The end of the line?

Philosophers of mathematics often rely on the historical progress of mathematics in support of mathematical realism. These histories typically build on formal semantic tools to evaluate the changes in mathematics, and on these bases present later mathematical concepts as refined versions of earlier concepts which are taken to be vague. Claiming that this view does not apply to mathematical concepts in general, we present a case-study concerning projective geometry, for which we apply the tools of cognitive linguistics to analyse the developmental trajectory of the domain. On the basis of this analysis, we argue for the existence of two conceptually incompatible inferential structures, occurring at distinct moments in history, both of which yield the same projective geometric theorems; the first invoked by the French mathematicians Girard Desargues (1591–1661) and Jean-Victor Poncelet (1788–1867), and the second characterising a specific modern mode. We demonstrate that neither of these inferential structures can be considered as a refinement of the other. This case of conceptual development presents an issue to the standard account of progress and its bearing on mathematical realism. Our analysis suggests that the features that distinguish the underlying conceptually incompatible inferential structures are invisible to the standard application of the tools of formal semantics. Thus this case-study stands as an example of the manner and necessity of linguistics—specifically cognitive linguistics—to inform the philosophy of mathematics.

Anonymous federated learning framework in the internet of things

AbstractWith the continuous development of the internet of things (IoT), federated learning is being widely applied. This technology keeps data locally to protect data security. However, during the process of uploading gradients from local clients, there is a possibility of leaking sensitive information such as identities. To address this issue, this paper presents a secure and efficient anonymous federated learning framework. In our proposed, we first design a lightweight key‐sharing protocol based on elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) to generate shared keys and ensure secure communication. We then describe the improved process of federated learning, where clients communicate with the cloud server using pseudonyms to achieve anonymity. The security of our protocol is analyzed from both formal and informal perspectives, demonstrating that our proposed protocol satisfies “session key security.” We also employ the formal verification tool ProVerif to validate the security of the protocol in terms of mutual authentication and key configuration in the Dolve–Yao threat model. Finally, the computational and communication costs of the proposed anonymous federated learning framework are evaluated, showing that both the computational and communication expenses are relatively low. A comparison was made between the proposed federated learning process and three other federated learning processes, demonstrating the clear advantages of our proposed.

Causal maps in the analysis and unsupervised assessment of the development of expert knowledge: Quantification of the learning effects for knowledge management purposes

This study proposes an application of cognitive maps in the representation of cognitive structures of the experts and assessment of their development/modification as a result of a (computer or expert system-assisted) learning process. It strives to identify information needed for the guidance of the process of creation and management of expert knowledge by formal modeling tools. Changes in experts’ cognitive structures are assumed to stem from individual and collaborative (group-level) learning. The novel approach to assessing the outcomes of learning reflected as changes in the cognitive structures of experts or groups of experts, modeled by cognitive maps, does not assume any correct or desired outcome of the learning process to be known in advance. Instead, it identifies and analyzes the changes in (or robustness of) the constituents of the cognitive maps from different points of view and allows for quantifying and visualizing the actual effect of the learning. The proposed methodology can identify changes in cognitive diversity, causal structures in terms of causal relations and concepts, and the perceived importance of strategic issues over the learning period. It can also detect which cause–effect relationships have appeared/disappeared considering the pre-/post-mapping design. Thus, it provides an exploratory account on the changes in the cognitive structures of the expert(s) as a result of learning. The applicability of the proposed methods is illustrated in the assessment of the learning outcomes of a group of 71 graduate students who participated in an eight-week business simulation task. The results of the empirical analysis confirm the viability of the proposed methodology and indicate that the students’ understanding of the utilized concepts and associated relationships in the decision-making process improved throughout the learning activity, ultimately showing that the course learning has considerably improved students’ perception and knowledge. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the proposed approach has the potential to be effective in assessing learning outcomes in teaching–learning activities.

Construction of a secure and efficient content key distribution framework for DRM systems

SummaryRecent advances in networks and digital technology have provided many user‐friendly environments such as telemedicine, e‐banking, e‐content, and e‐commerce. It has revolutionized the multimedia industry and made it accessible anytime and anywhere. However, its limitation also appeared in digital content piracy, which is more prevalent nowadays. Digital rights management (DRM) systems were developed to control the illegal spreading of digital content. Protocols are being developed to enable effective and secure communication in DRM systems. As security and efficiency are essential parameters, the approach should be two birds with one stone; i.e., the protocol should achieve efficiency and security together. Our investigation identified that secure mechanisms either have increased computation/communication overhead or fail to meet specified security criteria when discussing efficient content key delivery mechanisms. So, an efficient protocol design with the right security attributes is required. We have worked on designing a content delivery mechanism keeping in mind the desirable attribute of security and without decreasing overhead. The suggested solution targets “two birds with one stone.” We proved the security of the scheme in the random oracle model. We verify the security against active attacks using the formal simulation tool AVISPA. Detailed analysis is performed for the evaluation of computational and communication overhead. The comparative study is also presented to understand the gains in efficiency and security.

Computational Social Psychology.

Social psychologists attempt to explain how we interact by appealing to basic principles of how we think. To make good on this ambition, they are increasingly relying on an interconnected set of formal tools that model inference, attribution, value-guided decision making, and multi-agent interactions. By reviewing progress in each of these areas and highlighting the connections between them, we can better appreciate the structure of social thought and behavior, while also coming to understand when, why, and how formal tools can be useful for social psychologists.

Eyeball Test for the Assessment of Frailty in Elderly Patients With Cardiovascular Disease: A Prospective Study

Frailty has been associated with poor outcomes in patients with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). We aimed to assess the accuracy of the Eyeball test for frailty assessment in elderly patients with CVD. This is a prospective study including stable patients ≥75 years old who were followed-up in a cardiology clinic. Frailty assessment was performed separately through the Eyeball test and the Fried test in a blinded way. Cardiologists were asked to rate the frailty status of participants based on their routine clinical assessment and grade frailty on a Fried-type scale (1 to 5, with frailty defined as a score≥3). Each patient then underwent formal frailty assessment using the Fried test. Included were 300 consecutive patients with a mean age of 81±6years. Frailty was diagnosed in 109 (36%) and 125 patients (41%) according to the Fried and Eyeball tests, respectively. The Eyeball test demonstrated 86% sensitivity and 82% specificity for the diagnosis of frailty. A receiver operating characteristics curve analysis demonstrated an area under the curve of 0.82 for the diagnosis of frailty. The Eyeball test demonstrated a very high negative predictive value of 90% and a modest positive predictive value of 73% for frailty assessment. Similar results were observed after subgroup analysis according to age and gender. In conclusion, the Eyeball test is an accurate method to rule out frailty in elderly patients with CVD. However, when frailty is suspected based on the Eyeball test, a formal tool such as the Fried test should be used to confirm the diagnosis.

An Optimal Authentication Scheme through Dual Signature for the Internet of Medical Things

The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) overcomes the flaws in the traditional healthcare system by enabling remote administration, more effective use of resources, and the mobility of medical devices to fulfil the patient’s needs. The IoMT makes it simple to review the patient’s cloud-based medical history in addition to allowing the doctor to keep a close eye on the patient’s condition. However, any communication must be secure and dependable due to the private nature of patient medical records. In this paper, we proposed an authentication method for the IoMT based on hyperelliptic curves and featuring dual signatures. The decreased key size of hyperelliptic curves makes the proposed scheme efficient. Furthermore, security validation analysis is performed with the help of the formal verification tool called Scyther, which shows that the proposed scheme is secure against several types of attacks. A comparison of the proposed scheme’s computational and communication expenses with those of existing schemes reveals its efficiency.

Public Functions Implementation by Artificial Intelligence: Current Practices and Prospects for Common Measures within Particular Periods across Continents and Regions

The paper explores practices regarding the implementation by AI of public functions through the analysis of research activities, and administrative and legal regulations of AI in countries of various regions and continents. The hypothesis is that there might be some global trends regarding the AI phenomenon within international institutional vision, research, and national authorities with the goal to suggest common measures within the identification of short, medium, and long-term periods to provide public authorities with trajectories to regulate the AI in terms of its implementation of public functions regarding countries of different regions. The empirical research uses administrative and legal documents, information, and analytical materials from diverse countries. The study uses the comparative method and formal logic tools. The main findings suggest modeling measures within the identification of short, medium, and long-term periods and single out measures that are common to diverse countries, regarding the implementation by AI of public functions.

Public Blockchain-Based Data Integrity Verification for Low-Power IoT Devices

The integration of sensor nodes with public blockchains is possible with the help of low-power communication networks that use Bluetooth Low Energy and LoRa. However, power-consuming Wi-Fi is still the main means of communication for the existing sensor nodes, especially in urban environments. Typically high power consumption, private key disclosure, and high transaction fees are the issues that prevent battery-powered sensor nodes from being integrated with a public blockchain. Therefore, this paper proposes a data protection protocol that is able to secure the data integrity of the stored sensor data, help to reduce transaction fees, and prolong battery life for IoT devices that are used with public blockchain networks. A proof of concept is presented using an ESP32S2 device to evaluate and verify the performance of the proposed data storage protocol. A smart contract is designed and analyzed using a formal smart contract analysis tool. A decentralized web application is designed to display and verify the sensor data extracted from the public blockchain. The power consumption, memory usage, and security of the proposed solution are evaluated. The evaluation results show that data integrity can be achieved even for low-power sensor nodes that connect to public blockchains via Wi-Fi network.