Form Of Mimicry Research Articles

Performing whiteface in contemporary Senegal: mimicry, self-censorship and the disruption of postcolonial whiteness

ABSTRACT Whiteface is a staged embodiment of whiteness; it is the act of ‘dressing up’ as whiteness/a white person. For the Senegalese artist Samba Sine, this means painting himself white and putting on a French accent. This article examines one of Sine’s whiteface performances, Tajabóon Tubaab (A White/Foreign Tajaboon) (2011), and argues that whiteface, as a form of mimicry, has the power to circumscribe self-censorship and to critique postcolonial whiteness. In doing so, I draw upon Bernard Noël’s concept of sensure, which can be described as a form of self-censorship in which speech/texts are allowed to exist but remain void of meaning. The interview I conducted with Sine, representative of such self-censorship, appears as a clear antithesis to Tajabóon Tubaab and its critique of postcolonial whiteness. Mimicry, as theorized by Homi K. Bhabha, is therefore extended into a reflection on Senegalese whiteface as a means to overcome self-censorship. Whiteface, as performative mimicry, circumvents sensure, therefore replacing meaning into the text. Mimicry can legitimize imperial whiteness, but when performative, can also ensure the voicing of marginalized ideas. It is especially through temporary embodiment of power figures, through the donning of the white mask, that an artist can present a disturbing, displacing gaze.

Dual-Capped Helical Interface Mimics.

Disruption of protein-protein interactions is medicinally important. Interface helices may be mimicked in helical probes featuring enhanced rigidities, binding to protein targets, stabilities in serum, and cell uptake. This form of mimicry is dominated by stapling between side chains of helical residues: there has been less progress on helical N-caps, and there were no generalizable C-caps. Conversely, in natural proteins, helicities are stabilized and terminated by C- and N-caps but not staples. Bicyclic caps previously introduced by us enable interface helical mimicry featuring rigid synthetic caps at both termini in this work. An unambiguously helical dual-capped system proved to be conformationally stable, binding cyclins A and E, and showed impressive cellular uptake. In addition, the dual-capped mimic was completely resistant to proteolysis in serum over an extended period when compared with "gold standard" hydrocarbon-stapled controls. Dual-capped peptidomimetics are a new, generalizable paradigm for helical interface probe design.

Resistensi Kritis Ki Hadjar Dewantara pada Surat Kabar De Express: Sebuah Kajian Postkolonialisme

Postcolonialism literary criticism is a critical approach to literature that involves the historical context of colonialism and its impact on culture, identity, and power. Postcolonial literary criticism also helps provide an understanding of the concept of 'the Other', i.e., the way in which colonial culture denigrates and belittles other cultures outside its nation. This study aims to examine the article by Ki Hadjar Dewantara written in the newspaper Express with an approach to literary criticism of postcolonialism. This type of research is a descriptive qualitative literature study with an analysis method, namely content analysis. The source of this research data is an article entitled "Als ik een Nederlander was" or "If I Were a Dutchman," written by Ki Hadjar Dewantara (KHD) and published in De Express Newspaper on July 13, 1913. The research data is in the form of discourse quotes contained in the article. Data collection techniques include read, listen, and record techniques. The findings contained resistance in the form of mimicry, hybridity, and ambivalence. The resistance to mimicry or imitation shown by KHD is included in the category of closed or covert reciprocity because the rejection of the policies implemented by the Dutch government is opposed by writing that contains subtle but sharp satire. Hibridity resistance is found in the choice of KHD diction that deliberately explores and contrasts the words inlander-nederlander, freedom and slavery, freedom and oppression. The ambivalence resistance that was found was KHD, who initially wanted to become a Dutchman with his various arguments that flattered as well as satirized and gave condemnation to the colonial nation as KHD's strategy in awakening the patriotism and nationalism of the Indonesian people to fight for independence.

Mimikri Pribumi dan Kolonial Belanda dalam Novel "Student Hidjo" karya Mas Marco Kartodikromo: Kajian Postkolonialisme

This article will describe how the form of mimicry or imitation was done by the natives to the Dutch and the Dutch to the natives in the novel Student Hidjo by Mas Marco Kartodikromo. The purpose of this study was to determine the intrinsic elements and forms of mimicry or imitation of the characters in the novel. The method used is descriptive with a qualitative form. The approach used in this study is a postcolonial approach. Based on the analysis, several forms of mimicry or imitation were found in the Student Hidjo novel, including; mimicry of the use of language, mimicry of equipment for human life, mimicry of customs, and mimicry of science.

Description of the mantle lure and novel mimicry of the endangered Cumberlandian Combshell (Epioblasma brevidens) in the Clinch River, eastern United States.

The Cumberlandian Combshell (Epioblasma brevidens) is an endangered freshwater mussel endemic to the Tennessee and Cumberland River drainages, major tributaries of the Ohio River of the eastern United States. We conducted mask and snorkel surveys in May and June of 2021 and 2022 to locate, observe, photograph, and video female E.brevidens to document their unique mantle lures at sites in the Clinch River in Tennessee and Virginia. The mantle lure is morphologically specialized mantle tissue that mimics prey items of the host fish. The mantle lure of E.brevidens appears to mimic four distinct characteristics of the reproductive anatomy of the underside (ventral) of a gravid female crayfish, to include: (1) the external apertures of the oviducts located on the base of the third pair of walking legs, (2) crayfish larvae still encased in the egg membrane, (3) pleopods or claws, and (4) postembryonic eggs. Surprisingly, we observed males of E.brevidens displaying mantle lures that were anatomically complex and closely resembled the female mantle lure. The male lure similarly mimics oviducts, eggs, and pleopods but is diminutive (2-3 mm smaller in length or diameter) to those same structures in females. We describe for the first time the mantle lure morphology and mimicry of E.brevidens, showing its close resemblance to the reproductive anatomy of a gravid female crayfish, and a novel form of mimicry in males. To our knowledge, mantle lure displays in males have not been previously documented in freshwater mussels.

The effect of global warming on the Australian endemic orchid Cryptostylis leptochila and its pollinator.

Ecological stability together with the suitability of abiotic conditions are crucial for long-term survival of any organism and the maintenance of biodiversity and self-sustainable ecosystems relies on species interactions. By influencing resource availability plants affect the composition of plant communities and ultimately ecosystem functioning. Plant-animal interactions are very complex and include a variety of exploitative and mutualistic relationships. One of the most important mutualistic interactions is that between plants and their pollinators. Coevolution generates clustered links between plants and their pollen vectors, but the pollination and reproductive success of plants is reduced by increase in the specialization of plant-animal interactions. One of the most specialized types of pollination is sexual deception, which occurs almost exclusively in Orchidaceae. In this form of mimicry, male insects are attracted to orchid flowers by chemical compounds that resemble insect female sex pheromones and pollinate the flowers during attempted copulations. These interactions are often species-specific with each species of orchid attracting only males of one or very few closely related species of insects. For sexually deceptive orchids the presence of a particular pollen vector is crucial for reproductive success and any reduction in pollinator availability constitutes a threat to the orchid. Because global warming is rapidly becoming the greatest threat to all organisms by re-shaping the geographical ranges of plants, animals and fungi, this paper focuses on predicting the effect of global warming on Cryptostylis leptochila, a terrestrial endemic in eastern Australia that is pollinated exclusively via pseudo copulation with Lissopimpla excelsa. As a species with a single pollinator this orchid is a perfect model for studies on the effect of global warming on plants and their pollen vectors. According to our predictions, global warming will cause a significant loss of suitable niches for C. leptochila. The potential range of this orchid will be 36%-75% smaller than currently and as a result the Eastern Highlands will become unsuitable for C. leptochila. On the other hand, some new niches will become available for this species in Tasmania. Simultaneously, climate change will result in a substantial expansion of niches suitable for the pollinator (44-82%). Currently ca. 71% of the geographical range of the orchid is also suitable for L. excelsa, therefore, almost 30% of the areas occupied by C. leptochila already lack the pollen vector. The predicted availability of the pollen vector increased under three of the climate change scenarios analysed. The predicted habitat loss is a serious threat to this orchid even with the potential colonization of Tasmania by this plant. In the reduced range of C. leptochila the pollen vector will also be present assuring fruit set in populations of this orchid. The genetic pool of the populations in New South Wales and Queensland will probably be lost.

Философия – не идеология

Defining ideology as an interindividual system of stereotypes, which appears in the form of mimicry as a universal requirement of being, the author considers it to belong to people who show the ability to reason. A person, consciously car­rying out an act, at the same time does not realize all of himself in it, much of what he does, he does not consciously, does what is hidden from him. The es­sence of man and the essential things that are or are not realized in him are not explicitly represented in the consciousness of man. Often a person quite con­sciously applies certain given regulations in practice, without subjecting them to critical analysis. By carrying out this implicit, or not realizing what is accepted without reasoning and doubt, a person loses not only the philosophical pathos given to him by nature, but also his human nature, for he is called homo sapiens. Since “thinking” presupposes at the same time “acting”, then handing over an action to another person means a philosophical desertion committed by both those who act without thinking and those who think without acting. “Thinking” implies, at the same time “acting”. Refusal of action or its delegation to others (transferring the action to another person) destroys thinking. This is the destruc­tion of the thinking ability, this is a philosophical desertion committed by those whose thought flows only into action and by those who do not act and therefore do not think

A flower’s middle lobe mimics an anther

The yellow structure of this flower – Hypecoum erectum var lactiflorum, a desert annual that is native to Central Asia – is not an unusually large anther. Rather, it is a middle lobe of the flower’s inner petal. However, this lobe not only mimics an anther’s color and shape; it also presents pollen to the flower’s only known pollinator, the bee Colletes vestitus. The middle lobe takes up pollen from the anthers, folds upon itself, and then gradually bends outward to offer pollen. It therefore uses both visual and functional mimicry to attract C vestitus for pollination. This flower’s anther-mimicking middle lobe is an auxiliary and previously unknown pollination structure. Two questions are raised by this mimicry. What is the evolutionary force behind this strategy, and are key regulatory genes involved in the development of the elaborate petal? Answering these questions would improve our understanding of this new form of mimicry.

Othering the Self as a Form of Mimicry in the English Translation of Hirata’s Laskar Pelangi

Indonesia's best-seller novel, Laskar Pelangi (LP) by Andrea Hirata, is praised as a masterpiece that dares to show educational inequality in Indonesia, but at the same time is scolded for being too Westernoriented. The translation of this novel, Hirata himself made the draft, was assumed and suspected of being designed to amuse Western readers. It is very relevant for this paper to discuss the English translation of the novel from the post-colonial perspective. As the initial translator, Hirata significantly modified the English translation with addition (and deletion) of words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and a new sub-chapter. The shifts are examined with post-colonial theories from Said and Bhabha to reveal thetranslator‟s standpoint to the issue of Self and Other in the context of West-East relation. The point is also seen from a social perspective with the approach of Oysterman and Marcus's theory about the „Social Self‟ (and Other), with the consideration that the author himself made the initial translation.The results of the analysis show a phenomenon of mimicry in the form of othering the self through hyperbolic descriptions of poverty, castration of Malay Islamic tradition, and creation of a local female hero. This study will empower translators from ex-colonized countries to be more concerned about their dignity, identity and uniqueness for promoting equality in translation.

Mimikra jako przykład decepcji w przyrodzie a przejawy oszustwa w ekonomii - wybrane problemy

W opracowaniu podjęto próbę poszukiwania i objaśnienia analogii pomiędzy uniwersalizmem zjawiska decepcji w przyrodzie i oszustwa w sferze ekonomii. W obydwu obszarach analizy, zjawisko to najczęściej przyjmuje formę mimikry obronnej lub agresywnej. Do wykształcenia złożonych form oszukiwania, czy zwodzenia w świecie zwierząt doprowadziło rozpowszechnienie modelu drapieżca-ofiara, który poprzez maskowanie się lub udawanie kogoś innego, miał zapewnić ochronę przed atakiem lub taki atak ułatwić. W ekonomii można natomiast spotkać postawy przybierające postać mimikry, a więc analogicznego do przyrody kreowania się na kogoś innego, poprzez oszukańcze strategie stosowane przez różnorodnych wyzyskiwaczy, żerujących na naiwności stereotypach i automatyzmach ludzkich reakcji. Najczęściej są one spotykane w sferze marketingu, przybierając bardzo profesjonalne i wyrafinowane formy postaw marketerów i podmiotów przez nich reprezentowanych. Można tam dostrzec pewien symetryzm i analogie postępowań w zakresie odnoszenia indywidualnych korzyści kosztem innych.

The Resistance of Slave in Colonial Era toward Surapati by Abdoel Moeis

This descriptive qualitative research is done based on slave and slavery problem in Indonesia in literary work. It is executed by using deconstruction technique, and it has the goals to describe: (1) The relation between colonials and colonialized people in Surapati novel and (2) The resistance of slave to the employer, and (3) The characteristics of Surapati novel in postcolonial perspective. The result of this research shows that the relation between colonials and colonialized people, it is between Dutch and Indonesian indigene is an unbalanced relation. Dutch’s domination toward indigene is shown through Dutch’s prejudices toward indigene, animal stereotyping to indigent, and skin color discrimination which is constructed by colonial. Dutch viewed themselves are more civilized than indigene because they have white skin color, otherwise indigene have black skin color, or not white. This point of view is reconstructed in their mind and attitude, so there is a stereotype that indigene is uncivilized, negligent, lazy, and like an animal (monkey). The impact of this domination (discrimination, racism, and marginalization) makes indigene perform resistance. Resistance is done by slave/indigene in form of mimicry, and mockery that mocking Dutch colonial as an effort to destroy their power. The mimicry and mockery show the hybrid attitude of slave/indigene, so the discourse that is constructed in Surapati novel is ambiguous. So that, in postcolonial perspective this novel can be said having ambiguous characteristics. In one side it constructs opponent discourse, but in another side it is hegemonies by colonial discourse.

Diversity in Müllerian mimicry: The optimal predator sampling strategy explains both local and regional polymorphism in prey.

The convergent evolution of warning signals in unpalatable species, known as Müllerian mimicry, has been observed in a wide variety of taxonomic groups. This form of mimicry is generally thought to have arisen as a consequence of local frequency-dependent selection imposed by sampling predators. However, despite clear evidence for local selection against rare warning signals, there appears an almost embarrassing amount of polymorphism in natural warning colors, both within and among populations. Because the model of predator cognition widely invoked to explain Müllerian mimicry (Müller's "fixed n(k)" model) is highly simplified and has not been empirically supported; here, we explore the dynamical consequences of the optimal strategy for sampling unfamiliar prey. This strategy, based on a classical exploration-exploitation trade-off, not only allows for a variable number of prey sampled, but also accounts for predator neophobia under some conditions. In contrast to Müller's "fixed n(k)" sampling rule, the optimal sampling strategy is capable of generating a variety of dynamical outcomes, including mimicry but also regional and local polymorphism. Moreover, the heterogeneity of predator behavior across space and time that a more nuanced foraging strategy allows, can even further facilitate the emergence of both local and regional polymorphism in prey warning color.

Bird dropping masquerading of the nest by the potter waspMinixi suffusum(Fox, 1899) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Eumeninae)

The nest of Minixi suffusum offers a rare form of mimicry: bird dropping masquerading of the nest by the potter wasp was recorded in mid-western Brazil, in the municipality of Dourados MS. Nesting biology of M. suffusum and the material involved in the action of the camouflage were observed. Eleven nests were sampled, with a total of 38 cells. Use of uric acid for staining the cell was evident in all nests. The way that the wasp stains the cells was observed. Substrate nest site, seasonality, larvae biology, sex ratio, prey and parasitoids of M. suffusum were reported. Nest camouflage may be related to defense against natural enemies.

John Banville and Benjamin Black: The Mundo , Crime, Women

John Banville and Benjamin Black: The Mundo, Crime, Women Carol Dell’Amico (bio) Using the pen name Benjamin Black, John Banville began writing crime fiction in 2006. By that time his career as a writer of prose fiction reached back over thirty-five years. Banville’s first published work was a collection of short stories titled Long Lankin (1970), after which two novels, Nightspawn (1971) and Birchwood (1973), followed. At this point Banville began writing novels in series, completing two tetralogies: the so-called “science” novels (1976–86) and the “art” novels (1989–97). The five novels published since the tetralogies (2000–12), while not presented as a series, also share key elements and dominant themes with his previous work, and each of the three series also contains a distinct trilogy. A novelist who has been writing in a series-within-series format for over three decades, Banville characteristically writes self-referentially by constructing texts out of canonical borrowings—some of which repeat across the fiction—and by using a form of mimicry. Indeed, most of Banville’s writing is profoundly intra- and intertextual, and the intertextualism is of a kind and extent that enables it to cancel the usual mechanism of allusion and to render the citations original in meaning and effect. Though Banville’s reputation has grown steadily over the years, his work has not lacked critics, especially those who have questioned the issues of gender the fiction has raised. This essay suggests that the highly successful work of Benjamin Black has not only secured for its author a prominent place among current writers of Irish crime fiction, but it also invites intertexual analysis as a form of engagement both with Banville’s earlier work and with those critics who have viewed negatively the author’s articulation of questions of gender in the novels. [End Page 106] The Fiction of John Banville Banville’s series begin with the science novels, which explore connections between science and art and focus on imaginative leaps of scientific discovery and artistic creation. The series opens with Doctor Copernicus (1976) and Kepler (1981), fictional biographies of Nicolas Copernicus and Johannes Kepler, while the third, The Newton Letter: An Interlude (1982), concerns an historian of science unable to finish his book on Isaac Newton. Mefisto (1986), the phantasmagoric concluding novel with a young prodigy as protagonist, is a bridging text to the series to follow. The trilogy embedded in Banville’s second tetralogy of art novels, so-called for the central place of paintings within them, shares a common protagonist: the books’ narrator, Frederick (Freddie) Montgomery, who murders a woman, is thrown into jail, and attempts to redeem himself and to atone for his crime.1 In The Book of Evidence (1989), Ghosts (1993), and Athena (1995), Banville’s treatment of the imagination shifts from a focus on its “revolutionary” capacities to its susceptibility to fantasy, with Freddie’s crime following from a “failure of the imagination” and a failure to grasp the personhood of the woman he kills (215).2 That this crime underpins the trilogy points to the ethical content of the series as a whole, and has resulted in a new ethos-focused thread in the criticism of Banville’s work.3 The Untouchable (1997), the final work of the art tetralogy, is a fictionalized biography of Anthony Blunt, the Keeper of the Queen’s Pictures, who was unmasked in 1979 as the fourth Cambridge spy working for the Soviet Union. A bridging novel, like Mefisto it looks forward to Banville’s new exploratory focus on death, grieving, and loss through the Cleave characters that are present in the third trilogy (Eclipse, Shroud 2002, Ancient Light 2012) and in the other two books of the final series, The Sea (2005) and The Infinities (2009). The startling discipline of Banville’s work has elicited Violeta Delgado Crespo’s likening of Banville to Wallace Stevens, who thought of [End Page 107] his writing as his poetic mundo, a personal expressive system of modulating themes, symbols, and concepts that he developed over the course of his career (Crespo 306).4 Banville’s copiously plundered material—tropes, scenes, and voices—is adapted from canonical...

“Taking This from This and That from That”: Examining RZA and Quentin Tarantino’s Use of Pastiche

“Taking This from This and That from That”: Examining RZA and Quentin Tarantino’s Use of Pastiche

Myrmecophiles

Myrmecophiles

A parasite in wolf's clothing: hawk mimicry reduces mobbing of cuckoos by hosts

The reciprocal interactions between brood parasites and their hosts provide models for studying coevolution. For example, where hosts have evolved egg or chick discrimination, brood parasites have evolved mimicry of host eggs or chicks. Here, we suggest that there is another form of mimicry by cuckoos. A previous study has shown that naive small birds, with no evolutionary history of brood parasitism, are as afraid of adult common cuckoos Cuculus canorus as of sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus because of their physical resemblance. However, it has yet to be shown whether host species regard cuckoos as hawk like, or how hawk resemblance might benefit the cuckoo. We provide the first evidence that hawk resemblance involving barred underparts is an adaptive brood parasitic trait. We show by plumage manipulations of taxidermic models that reed warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus) hosts are more reluctant to approach and mob common cuckoos with barred rather than unbarred underparts. Our results indicate that reed warblers are more aggressive toward cuckoos that appear less hawk like and that hence, hawk resemblance facilitates access to host nests. Therefore, we suggest that cuckoos employ 2 forms of mimicry: To enhance parasitic laying, cuckoo adults are Batesian mimics of hawks, appearing dangerous to adult host survival, when in fact they could be safely attacked. At later stages, cuckoo eggs and chicks are aggressive mimics, appearing harmless but in fact dangerous to host reproduction. These strategies are each countered by host discrimination, providing the means for distinct coevolutionary arms races at successive stages of the host nesting cycle. Key words: brood parasitism, coevolution, cuckoo, dove, mimicry, sparrowhawk. [Behav Ecol]

Publish and Flourish, or Perish: RAE, ERA, RQF, and Other Acronyms for Infinite Human Resourcefulness

Publish and Flourish, or Perish: RAE, ERA, RQF, and Other Acronyms for Infinite Human Resourcefulness

Comment on Priming Skills of Autistic Twins and Yamaguchi (2006) Letter to the Editor: “Questionable Aspects of Oliver Sacks’ (1985) Report”, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Dear Editor, Oliver Sacks’ 1985 piece ‘‘The autistic twins’’ remains to this day the most compelling account of savant numerosity skills. Sacks broke the bewildering code of number communication that existed between autistic twins by identifying the numbers as being special. They were in fact primes! Yamaguchi (2006) has recently questioned the method Sacks used to come to his conclusions. However, in my opinion, Dr Sacks’ story remains consistent with his having a book with a limited number of ‘‘large’’ primes, e.g. containing at least one 8 and one 10 digit prime. In rereading his account, I see nothing that contradicts this. Sacks did not say he verified the 8, 9 or 10 digit primes offered by the twins, only that the twins responded to them as they did with 6 digit primes. He did verify their 6 digit responses as primes. So, although Yamaguchi’s (2006) observations are of interest, I do not think they detract from Sack’s original account. Rather, they highlight his ingenious observations and technique used to extract a general conceptual story from limited available information. This is an example of science at the frontier, requiring daring to advance new interpretations of partial data. Savants, like the autistic twins discussed by Sacks (1985), are provocative exceptions to our understanding of intellectual ability. They can’t tell us how they perform feats like recognising primes. How do they do it? One view argues that savants acquire their skills like any normal person, through repetitive practice. The idea is that brain damage fuels obsessional interest and the capacity for pathological concentration (Howe, 1989). But this explanation does not fit well with the fact that savant skills can sometimes emerge ‘spontaneously’ (Treffert, 2000; Miller, Boone, cummings, Mishkin, & Read, 2000; Miller et al., 1998) and do not improve qualitatively with time, even though the skill might become better articulated (O’Connor, 1989). Nor does it explain why savants coincidentally possess the same peculiar skills across cultures. At the other extreme, we have argued that savant skills are a form of mimicry, requiring little or no practice (Snyder & Mitchell, 1999). Savants simply tap into information and mental machinery that resides equally in us all but cannot normally be accessed. For example, our brains possess algorithms for calculating the shape of an object from subtle shading across its surface or perspective from gradient. We are not normally conscious of this, for otherwise we would all be able to draw without training. But brain impairment enables savants to have privileged access to this raw, lower level, sensory information before it is packaged into holistic concepts or meaningful labels (Snyder & Mitchell, 1999; Snyder, Bossomaier, & Mitchell, 2004). Interestingly, such access has been artificially induced in healthy, normal people by directing low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to the left anterior temporal lobe (Snyder et al., 2003; Young, Morrell, & Ridding, 2004), a site implicated in the savant condition (Miller et al., 1988). This same procedure has recently been found to improve the ability of healthy normal participants to accurately guess the number (say 100) of discrete elements distributed randomly (Snyder, Bahramali, Hawker, & Mitchell, 2006). A. Snyder (&) Centre for the Mind, University of Sydney, The Australian National University, Sydney, Australia e-mail: allan@centreforthemind.com

How weird can mimicry get?

Classical mimicry theory distinguishes clearly between the mutualistic resemblance between two or more defended species (muellerian mimicry), and the parasitic resemblance of a palatable species to a defended species (batesian mimicry). Modelling the behaviour of predators, without initially taking ecological complications into account, is a good strategy for exploring whether this division is valid. Two such behavioural models are described: conditioning theory, which simulates changes in motivational attack levels according to the norms of current learning theory; and saturation theory, which considers how a predator may become saturated with a particular toxic compound, and then cease feeding on the prey species that delivers it. This effect is to be clearly distinguished from simple satiation. Most formulations of the conditioning model allow the direction of reinforcement produced by a particular prey to change according the predator's current state of motivation: this leads to the existence of quasi-batesian mimicry, a parasitic mimicry between two species that could both be described as defended. At high densities, two prey species that share a chemical defense will be ‘muellerian mutualists’, mutually protecting each other against predators that have been saturated with the defensive compound. This mutualism may be accompanied by true muellerian mimicry of the colour patterns, or the patterns may be completely different. This can therefore be regarded as a form of mimicry in a non-visual communication channel. Even an apparently palatable prey species may be effectively unavailable to predators if its density is such as to deliver a particular nutrient in excess of the predator's need for a balanced diet. Such a nutrient in effect becomes a toxin, and such an abundant prey species would be partly defended and potentially able to act as the model in a mimicry system. Thus there might be protective mimicry between ‘palatable’ species, and a ‘palatable’ species might even function as the model for a ‘defended’ mimic. These unorthodox kinds of mimicry probably exist transiently during fluctuations of prey populations. It is less likely that these conditions persist for long enough to induce the evolution of mimicry, and the relationships perhaps usually occur when mimicry already exists for other reasons. Mimicry rings may be mutually stabilised by a combination of toxic mutualism and the exchange of species between the rings. Colour polymorphism in a defended species is strictly neutral whenever the population is dense enough to saturate the predator. This, as well as quasi-batesian mimicry, may help to explain the minority of warningly coloured species that are polymorphic.