Floristic diversity and forest structure in two protected miombo woodlands: Insights from permanent plots in Gilé and Niassa, Mozambique

Climate change is impacting forests in Central Europe, causing increased mortality and degradation of forest ecosystem services (FES). As global warming intensifies, these effects are likely to worsen, particularly through more severe droughts and increased biotic disturbances. Understanding how forests respond to different levels of warming is essential for adaptation planning. Therefore, this study analyzed changes in forest structure and FES, including timber production, climate change mitigation, recreation, and structural diversity, under three global warming scenarios. Using the LandClim model, we compared warming levels of 1.5, 2, and 3 ​°C above pre-industrial temperatures, based on 30-year periods from RCP data, to historical climate. Our research focused on Freiburg's forests in southwestern Germany, characterized by diverse tree species and an elevation range of 200–1,250 ​m a.s.l. A warming of 1.5 ​°C could temporarily increase productivity, but at 2 ​°C, biomass losses of up to 10% would occur below elevations of 450 ​m due to drought mortality. Under 3 ​°C, losses would intensify below 650 ​m up to 40%, with even drought-resistant species like pedunculate oak experiencing mortality. At higher elevations, bark beetle outbreaks caused mortality of Norway spruce, while European beech capitalized on the changing ecological conditions. Higher warming levels significantly deteriorated FES, particularly timber production, climate change mitigation, and structural diversity, while recreation was less affected. These findings emphasize the urgency of meeting Paris Agreement targets, as limiting warming below 2 ​°C can reduce severe impacts. If warming exceeds this critical threshold, even species presently considered drought-resistant, such as native sessile and pedunculate oaks and non-native red oak, could face serious threats at lower elevations. This would undermine the effectiveness of current management strategies, as these tree species are key to providing multiple FES.

Forests in the Himalaya occur across a huge elevational range up to the tree-line ecotone. Precipitation also varies strongly; it is usually high at the windward side and low at the leeward side of the central mountain chain. Our objectives were (a) to compare forest structures in the tree-line ecotones at the wind and leeward side, and (b) to test the predictability of forest structural complexity by topographic and climatic variables from lower elevations to the tree-line. The study was conducted in the Annapurna range with 90 plots in the tree-line ecotones and an additional 69 plots at lower elevations. Forest structure was assessed by mobile laser scanning. On the windward side, the tree-line ecotone forest was mainly composed of broad-leaved species such as Rhododendron campanulatum. The stands had a high number of stems, small crowns, low vertical stratification, and dense canopy cover. On the leeward side, the tree-line ecotone forest was predominantly composed of needle-leaved species, including Pinus wallichiana. The stands had a low number of stems, large crowns, greater vertical stratification, and an open canopy. Forest structural complexity, measured by the box dimension (Db) was similar at the tree-line on both sides. For all available plots (n = 159), generalized additive models explained up to 83% of the variation in Db with the variable elevation, precipitation, slope, and aspect. Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) analysis underlined the dominant influence of elevation, followed by precipitation on both Db and forest height. Overall, Db remained relatively stable up to 3,600 m a.s.l. and then abruptly declined. This contrasts with forest height, which had already declined earlier. Overall, our study highlights the differences between precipitation regimes and underscores the importance of topography and precipitation in shaping forest height and structural complexity differently in the Himalaya.

How artificial drought generated by the Balbina hydropower dam has transformed the floristic structure of downstream floodplain forests

TLNet: A deep learning framework for tree detection in forest point clouds using multi-layered forest structure

Wildfire alters forest structure while belowground multifunctionality remains unchanged in a karst Pinus massoniana forest

Background: Understanding the biotic factors that drive aboveground biomass, including species and structural diversity, is essential for improving forest productivity and informing management under climate change. Hypotheses: We evaluated whether species diversity and structural diversity positively influence aboveground biomass in a temperate forest of northwestern Mexico, hypothesizing that structural diversity would exert a stronger and more consistent effect. Data description / Mathematical model: Aboveground biomass was estimated using species- and genus-specific allometric equations. Species diversity indices (richness, Shannon, and evenness) and structural metrics (tree density, number of diameter and height classes, and tree-size diversity indices) were calculated. Partial correlations guided variable selection, followed by linear regression relating diversity metrics to plot-level aboveground biomass. Study site and dates: The study was conducted in the El Brillante ejido, Sierra Madre Occidental, Durango, Mexico (~2,500 m elevation), using data collected in 2023 from 40 randomly distributed plots. Methods: Pearson and partial correlations evaluated bivariate and independent relationships between predictors and aboveground biomass. The final model included tree density, number of diameter classes, and the Shannon index of height classes; assumptions were verified using residual diagnostics and variance inflation factor. Results: Mean aboveground biomass was 82 Mg ha⁻¹. Species richness showed weak and non-significant relationships, whereas structural variables explained 82% of biomass variation. Conclusions: Structural diversity is a strong predictor of aboveground biomass, while species richness plays a limited role.

Long-term data from permanent monitoring plots are essential for understanding ecological succession, detecting changes in forest structure, assessing community stability, examining species interactions, and tracking population trends of species of conservation concern. In this study, we established a permanent plot to monitor the regeneration and population dynamics of Hopea bancana (Boerl.) Slooten—a critically endangered tree species restricted to Mursala Island in western coast of North Sumatera Province, Indonesia. A 0.25-hectare plot (50 × 50 meters) was set up to collect baseline information on both H. bancana and the surrounding tree community. All trees with a Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) greater than 5 cm were measured and identified. In total, 318 trees were recorded, representing 49 species, 41 genera, and 27 plant families. Among them were nine H. bancana individuals—one mature tree with a DBH of 66.4 cm and eight younger trees with DBHs ranging from 7 to 34 cm. Given the high intensity of anthropogenic threats on Mursala Island, including illegal logging and forest conversion, conservation measures should prioritize protecting remaining forest cover, controlling illegal logging, monitoring invasive species, and preventing further forest conversion to ensure the long-term persistence of H. bancana and other threatened Dipterocarpaceae species. This dataset offers valuable baseline information for future monitoring and conservation efforts targeting H. bancana. Additionally, the study provides a replicable framework for conserving other narrowly distributed and threatened plant species in Indonesia’s tropical forests.

Edge formation through moderate retention forestry creates transitional zones that shape environmental gradients and influence arthropod behavior. We examined fine-scale movement dynamics of ground-dwelling arthropods, quantified as orientation-specific activity along and across hard forest edges, in temperate lowland forests of Central Europe. The study focused on buffer-zone stands transitioning toward oak dominance. Drift-fence pitfall traps were placed across retention clearcuts, ecotones, and forest interiors, between April and October 2023. In total, 8643 individuals from 188 species were recorded and classified into five functional groups: predators, herbivores, omnivores, saproxylics, and detritivores. Arthropod activity varied among habitats, with along-edge orientation consistently exceeding across-edge orientation. This pattern is consistent with microclimatic gradients and behavioral orientation cues. Seasonal trends included elevated detritivore activity in the "along" orientation within ecotones during spring, suggesting corridor-like use of transitional habitats, and reduced across-orientation activity of omnivores in forest interiors during summer, consistent with seasonal changes in habitat use. Saproxylics were most active in the "along" orientation within forest interiors during autumn, reflecting their specialization for canopy-closed forests. Ordination analysis and species-level response models identified distinct movement dynamics among functional groups. Detritivores oriented along edges, whereas omnivores were associated with across-oriented activity, particularly outside ecotones. These findings highlight forest edge structure as a key ecological boundary shaping orientation-specific arthropod activity and provide a functional context for interpreting behavioral responses to edge environments. Incorporating functional group responses into retention forestry can support the development of more connected and resilient forest landscapes.

African elephants (<i>Loxodonta Africana cyclotis</i>) serve a pivotal role in shaping forest ecosystems, particularly in regions like Mount Cameroon national park. Their size and behavior impact various ecological components, from canopy structure to understory dynamics. Also, elephants play a crucial role as ecosystem engineers, and their foraging and browsing behaviors induce significant disturbances that shape forest characteristics. This study explored the impact of African forest elephants’ activity on the forest ecology of Mount Cameroon national park, focusing on six key areas, forest canopy structure, tree species composition, forest tree regeneration, vine growth, forest understory dynamics, and large trees formation. Research data collection was carried out five days each month, for a period of six months. Systematic vegetation plots within selected sites were established to examine tree abundance and species diversity. Quadrats and transects were equally used to capture data on the types and numbers of trees, especially focusing on both preferred and less preferred species by elephants. The results of this study showed that African forest elephant activity recorded a significant association on forest canopy structure r=0.309 P=0.001, tree species composition X<sup>2</sup>=83.267 df=6 P=0.000, forest tree regeneration X<sup>2</sup>=45.891 df=6 P=0.000, vine growth X<sup>2</sup>=54.030 df=6 P=0.000, forest understory X<sup>2</sup>=69.696 df=6 P=0.000, and large trees structure X<sup>2</sup>=73.283 df=6 P=0.000 respectively. Furthermore, human-wildlife conflict revealed a significant link on elephant population threat X<sup>2</sup>=63.720 df=4 P=0.000, biodiversity rating X<sup>2</sup>=63.154 df=4 P=0.000, and elephants grouping behaviour X<sup>2</sup>=62.876 df=4 P=0.000 respectively. Forest elephants play a crucial role in rainforest ecosystem. Their activities, including browsing, trampling, and creating trails, modify the forest structure, which in turn affects resource availability and habitat for other species. As human populations expand into rainforest areas, elephants face habitat loss and fragmentation. This encroachment reduces the space available for elephants to roam and feed, leading to population declines. The findings indicated that elephant interactions result in increased biodiversity, altered species distributions, and varying regeneration patterns, which collectively contribute to the resilience of forest ecosystems. This research equally underscores the importance of elephants in maintaining ecological balance in Mount Cameroon national park and provides insights for effective conservation strategies aimed at protecting both elephant populations and the valuable forest habitat they help sustain.

Spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) outbreaks are a major disturbance in northeastern American forests. Monitoring, forecasting, and mitigating outbreak risks require information on how local population densities translate to defoliation. Given landscape-scale heterogeneity, forest structure, and local population dynamics, one expects the relationship between population densities and defoliation to vary spatially and temporally. We analyzed 17 years of larval density data from over 1,000 locations in Québec, Canada, to investigate how larval densities and environmental context translate into observable defoliation. We found a positive latitudinal gradient and a positive effect of hardwood species on insect population growth rates. Further, we identified a 3-year cumulative effect of larval densities on defoliation, with a 2-year lag having the strongest influence. On average, a density of 15 larvae per branch corresponded to a 29% probability of defoliation. However, this probability varied widely (13-52%) with the proportions of balsam fir and black spruce. Our study elucidates the relationship between SBW populations and defoliation, highlighting the importance of cumulative larval density effects and environmental context in defining defoliation risk.

As a crucial pillar industry in the country, the automotive industry continues to evolve with the increasing number of vehicles in operation, leading to a continual rise in the need for aftermarket parts and repair services. Fluctuations in automotive spare part requirements are influenced by various complex factors, which significantly impact production costs. The intermittent distribution of such requirements and strict limitations highlights the importance of automotive spare part management to enhance production efficiency and reduce costs. To improve demand forecasting accuracy, this study summarizes and synthesizes trends in automotive spare parts; proposes a tree-based machine learning forecasting model, based on a two-stage random forest (RF) structure that separately models demand occurrence probability and conditional demand size; and compares the outcomes with benchmarks to validate model effectiveness. The empirical study is conducted using an industrial dataset consisting of monthly demand records for approximately 2500 spare parts over a four-year period. This forecasting approach enables companies to rationalize inventory storage, ensure the quality of automotive repairs, and elevate service standards. Simultaneously, by improving the efficiency of inventory planning and allocation decisions, companies can enhance the quality of after-sales services, reduce inventory costs, and maximize the value of the automotive industry chain. Through reducing spare parts wastage and further lowering enterprise costs and industrial emissions, companies can achieve the goals of automotive supply chain resilience. Notably, this study focuses on automotive spare parts management and provides a feasible, reliable, and interpretable forecasting solution for automotive manufacturers to address intermittent demand challenges in spare parts management.

Widespread mortality poses a major conservation challenge for foundation species whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelm.). We assessed whitebark pine forest structure, composition, and persistence potential in Idaho and Nevada, USA following mountain pine beetle (MPB), wildfire, and no recent disturbance by comparing overstory and regeneration relative abundances, classifying post-disturbance communities, and gauging persistence via residual mature trees and seedlings. Wildfire mortality spanned all species and sizes and exceeded MPB mortality, which was limited to larger pines. Disturbance regulated competing canopy species, with subalpine fir trees decreasing following fire and rising following MPB; however, subalpine fir relative regeneration abundance was disproportionately greater following fire and MPB. Non-native white pine blister rust disproportionately impacted small trees in 48% of plots. Whitebark pine persistence metrics of live overstory for cone production (basal area ≥5 m2 ha-1) and successful regeneration (≥250 seedlings ha-1) occurred on 23% of plots. A subset (14%) exceeded overstory but not seedling metrics, while 33% exceeded seedling but not overstory metrics. Roughly 30% of plots did not meet minimum persistence thresholds. Sufficient overstory was predominantly on undisturbed sites, with satisfactory seedling densities after MPB. Consideration of forest composition and persistence metrics will be valuable for prioritizing conservation efforts.

Background and Research Aims: Tropical montane forests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth, yet they are also highly threatened by land-use change and historical degradation. Understanding their floristic composition and structure, its species turnover, and spatial patterns of diversity is essential for anticipating the effects of ongoing environmental change and for informing effective conservation strategies. Methods: We studied floristic patterns across eight 0.25-ha permanent plots located within a protected area in an Andean Colombian montane forest called the Cuchilla Jardín–Támesis Integrative Management District, by describing and comparing diversity patterns, species turnover among sites, and forest structure through aboveground biomass estimations. Results: The studied protected area hosts a highly spatially structured forest system, where species distributions are highly localized, conspecific individuals are clumped, and the replacement of closely related taxa drives species turnover. Each local site contributes a distinct piece of the broader regional species pool. Conclusion: This region is exceptionally rich in taxonomic diversity but relatively low in phylogenetic uniqueness, suggesting high levels of spatial replacement. Preserving the largest possible fraction of this landscape is essential for maintaining its full biological and evolutionary heritage. Implications for Conservation: We advocate strengthening conservation efforts in this region to maintain current forest cover and prevent further fragmentation by restoring degraded areas and expanding protected areas under effective socio-ecological conservation strategies. Long-term monitoring through permanent plots, as implemented in this study, will be critical for detecting changes over time and guiding adaptive conservation strategies in this biodiverse and spatially complex landscape.

Forest structure and microclimate predict nesting activity and reproductive success of cavity-nesting Hymenoptera

European forests are increasingly managed to harmonize production goals with biodiversity conservation, through practices such as retention and close-to-nature forestry. Forest birds may benefit from these practices, but it remains unclear how the effects of different management practices compare, and whether responses to management are driven by changes in the availability of invertebrates, a crucial element of bird diets during the breeding season. To answer these questions, we carried out bird point counts on 135 1-ha plots in southwestern Germany from 2017 to 2022, and measured the abundance of invertebrate groups in the lower forest strata using flight interception traps and pitfall traps. We used N-mixture models and Bayesian generalized linear models (GLMs) to estimate, respectively, how abundances of 32 bird species and 20 invertebrate groups respond to predictors representing forest management, structure, composition, and the abiotic environment. We then compared the responses of birds and invertebrates, and employed piecewise structural equation models (SEMs) to disentangle the causal links between forest structure and abundances of bird guilds and invertebrate groups. Bird abundances responded to predictors representing retention and close-to-nature forestry practices, but the direction of effects varied across species and facets of management. Moreover, the effects of retention practices were weaker than those of close-to-nature practices, especially those of admixing broadleaf trees. Hence, these management practices likely need to be applied in tandem with others (e.g., gap creation) to secure a diverse forest bird assemblage. Invertebrate abundances responded to both management types, but responses did not clearly align with those of bird species, and SEMs did not support direct links between bird and invertebrate abundances. Still, we revealed parallel positive responses of birds and invertebrate groups to the same habitat features, such as broadleaf share, suggesting that these may function as cues for high food availability during habitat selection by birds. Therefore, forest management that aims at increasing bird populations should address other potential limiting factors, such as nest site availability, in addition to fostering high invertebrate abundances, which may safeguard habitat quality for birds.

The role of tidal range and seawater pollution in shaping mangrove biomass and carbon stocks.

The structure of intertidal kelp forests and their associated assemblages along the north-east coast of the United Kingdom

Remote-sensing based tree maps can be used to calculate various diversity indices, but the detection probability of trees depends on size and species. We propose a novel approach combining individual tree detection (ITD) with resampling corrections (+R) which aims to simultaneously correct the size, species, and spatial distribution of trees using scalable algorithms. Using airborne laser scanning, optical data, and ground measurements, we demonstrate the compatibility of ITD+R with two different types of forests and ITD algorithms, as well as its scalability to areas exceeding 3000 km 2 . The tree maps were evaluated using plot-level variables and benchmarked against area-based k nearest neighbors ( k -NN). The ITD+R improved ITD results for most studied metrics, with the Shannon index being an exception, and even outperformed k -NN in predicting dominant height in managed stands, though k -NN still outperformed for stem density and volume. The ITD+R approach was shown to be adaptable to various diversity indices which it has not been specifically trained on, with 254 m 2 plot-level predictions correlating at r =0.42–0.91. While ITD trees could be classified with OA=82.0%–86.6% to pine, spruce, and deciduous, further research is needed to account for rare tree species, as low prevalence results in a large number of false detections which cannot be sufficiently addressed with classification alone. • Structurally representative maps were created using RS data and ground truth. • Species, DBH, height, volume, and location were predicted for each tree. • Height, DBH, and volume distributions by species were accurately reproduced. • The created maps can be reliably used to calculate biodiversity proxies.

ABSTRACT Aim To evaluate how elephant activity and anthropogenic disturbances (logging, secondary forest conversion, and proximity to villages) influence aboveground carbon (AGC) stocks in tropical forests and how their effects vary across tree size classes. Location Gabon. Time Period 2013–2023. Major Taxa Studied Gymnosperms and angiosperms. Methods Using 260 one‐hectare forest plots across Gabon, we employed Bayesian modelling to quantify the effects of elephant activity and disturbances on AGC through changes in stand structure—that is, basal area (), tree height (), and wood density ()—across three tree diameter () classes: small (10 cm ≤ 30 cm), medium (30 cm 70 cm) and large ( 70 cm). Environmental covariates (temperature, precipitation, and soil characteristics) were also incorporated in our models to account for broader climatic influences and to isolate disturbance effects. Results Anthropogenic disturbances, particularly secondary forest conversion and proximity to villages, were strongly associated with reductions in AGC, driven by declines in , , and . By contrast, elephant activity increased in small and medium trees, suggesting long‐term contributions to forest compositional shifts and carbon storage potential. Size‐based analysis revealed divergent disturbance impacts across tree size classes that were not evident in whole‐plot summaries. Main Conclusions Elephant activity and anthropogenic disturbances influence AGC through distinct, size‐based pathways. While human activities reduce carbon stocks by altering forest structure, forest elephants enhance traits associated with carbon‐dense composition. Conservation strategies that integrate faunal interactions with forest management are essential to maintaining tropical carbon stocks under ongoing environmental change.