Forest Elephants Research Articles

One Species or Two (or Three)?

Recent studies of elephant DNA suggest that forest and savanna elephants, generally thought of as separate subspecies, may, in fact, be entirely different species.

In Search of Africa's Forgotten Forest Elephant

Say “African elephant,” and one pictures a vast savanna, where the largest land mammal mingles with lions, giraffes, and gazelles. In fact, about one-third of the continent's elephants live in its dark, often inaccessible rain forests, where the animals are difficult for researchers to spot, let alone study. But now, new research is bringing these huge, elusive creatures out of the shadows and shedding light on their role in rain-forest ecology and their social behavior.

Studying elephants by direct observation in the Dzanga clearing: an update

The Dzanga clearing in the southwestern forest of the Central African Republic continues to attract large number of forest elephants. Over the five years of observation 2100 individuals have been identified with 855 being seen at least twice. Observations have provided data of population structure, social organization, birthrate, and behaviour. The number of elephant identified per day, expressed as a percentage of the maximum 30 minute count, continues to increase with the figures for October 1995 through December 1995 calculated to be 82%. New identifications now average one individual per week. Observations of the 45 males in musth suggest that is synchronized, occurring approximately the same time each year for each male seen in musth. From the data thus far musth can be described as a dry season phenomenon.

The conflict between humans and elephants in the central African forests

AbstractElephants and humans each suffer from the presence of the other when they occupy the same forests. Farmers risk losing their crops to elephants, while elephants are displaced by settlements, agriculture, roads and development projects. Elephants have also been hunted for ivory. The ivory trade in the equatorial forests expanded in the nineteenth century as Europe prospered, and then again in the twentieth century as the Far East prospered. Forest elephant numbers were depleted each time.Elephants are unpopular in the forest zone, and increasing human populations combined with the spread of democracy in central Africa pose a major threat to their future. If elephants are to be tolerated by villagers living in the equatorial forests, the costs they impose must be reduced and the benefits to the rural populace must be increased. A three‐pronged strategy is suggested, involving land‐use planning, measures to mitigate crop damage, and programmes to enhance the value of elephants. Elephants could be viewed as assets if their importance in the forest ecosystem were recognized, if they were domesticated for logging or transport, or if their presence was one of the factors which attracted tourists to the forest zone. However, management strategies based on hunting have the best chance of conserving elephants because of the importance of hunting in the culture of the forest people. Sport hunting for trophies may bring the greatest revenues. Community wildlife‐management programmes, where village councils make the decisions, could prevent overexploitation. There are no simple answers, however, because one form of management may conflict with the goals of another.

Mitochondrial DNA analysis of two southern African elephant populations

The modern view is that there are at most only two valid forms of the African elephant namely Loxodonta qfricana africana, the bush elephant, and L.a. cyclotis, the forest elephant (Ansell 1974; Meester et al. 1986). The Knysna elephant which was also described as a separate sub-species is now almost extinct. Plans to augment the remnant population by introducing other animals must take into account the taxonomic questions and issue of conserving elephant gene pools (Greig 1982a). Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) restriction fragment-size comparisons were performed on specimens from the Kruger National Park and the Addo Elephant National Park. If the Addo population's results are extrapolated to the Knysna population, it may be concluded that there is no genetic evidence for the Kruger and Knysna elephant populations to be considered as different sub-species.

Studying forest elephants by direct observation: preliminary results from the Dzanga clearing, Central African Republic

Daylight observations in a bai or forest clearing with a wet sandy soil substratum, from which elephants obtain water by creating waterholes, have provided identification of individuals as well as analysis of group structure and behaviourial aspects of forest elephants. Elephants which are observed from a seven metre high platform at the edge of the clearing have been present in over 99% of the 1800 observation hours. The high calcium and other cation content of the water may be a partially responsible for the high number of animals visiting the clearing, but the clearing itself provides a location for social activity that is not feasible in the forest itself. The number of males and females observed is very similar and large tusked old males make up 7% of the population, however the presence of males is significantly higher during the wet season. Evidence suggests that the migratory population in the Dzanga Sangha-Nouabale Ndoki complex is comprised of males.The low birthrate and the equity between sexes suggest a stable, non poached population.

The domestication of the African elephant

Reviews the historic domestication and use of African elephants in western Zaire, the unsuccesful attempts to import Asian elephants, and the capture and training of elephants from the late 1800s through to about 1960. Notes the redevelopment of earlier forest elephant domestication in Garamba National Park, and the ongoing attempt to domesticate bush elephants in the Okavango Delta area with the assistance of circus trained animals. Tourism is the focus of both present programmes.

Morphology of fruits dispersed by African forest elephants

Morphology of fruits dispersed by African forest elephants

An estimate of the numbers of forest elephants in Gabon

ABSTRACTThe number of elephants living in the forests of Gabon was estimated by a stratified dung survey. The forest zone was stratified according to the distribution of the human population. The density of dung-piles was estimated for each stratum by the line-transect method. The total number of dung-piles in the forests of Gabon was estimated to be 52.43 × 106 ± 13.25 × 106. This gave an elephant estimate of 61,800 ±20,200. This survey shows Gabon to have one of the largest elephant populations on the continent.

Biomass of Rain Forest Mammals in the Lope Reserve, Gabon

1. Densities of mammals in five sites in lowland semi-evergreen tropical rain forest in the Lope Reserve, central Gabon, were estimated using standard line-transect methods. Biomass was calculated using weights taken from the literature. 2. The total estimated biomass of diurnal primates, ruminants, pigs, elephants and squirrels in the five sites varied between 998 and 5866 kg km −2 . Forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis Matschie) dominated the biomass in all sites, making up 52-89% and primates accounted for 6-30%. 3. Statistically significant differences in density were detected for most species in at least two of the sites. Some of these differences could be related to vegetation structure and composition, but the reasons for others were unclear

A model illustrating the changes in forest elephant numbers caused by poaching

SummaryA geographic information system (GIS) was used to analyse field data on the abundance of elephant dung‐piles. For each country, the GIS was used to create contours representing distances from roads or rivers. The area of forest between each contour was then calculated. The curvilinear relationships between dung‐pile density and distance to the nearest road or village were then used to calculate the numbers of dung‐piles between contours and the total for each country. Comparisons between undisturbed and heavily poached elephant populations suggest that the total forest elephant population in central Africa has been reduced by about 44% as a result of ivory poaching. Forest elephants may be more vulnerable to poaching than previously thought because, for example, two‐thirds of Congo's elephants live within two days' walk of a road or navigable river.RésuméOn a employé un systéme d'information géographique (en anglais GIS) pour analyser les données sur la présence des excréments d'éléphants. Pour chaque pays, le GIS a servi à créer des tracés représentant les distances par rapport aux routes et aux riviéres. On calculait alors la zone forestiére comprise entre chaque tracé. Les relations curvilinéaires entre la densité des excréments et la distance par rapport à la route ou au village les plus proches étaient alors employées pour calculerle nombre d'excréments entre les tracés, et le total pour chaque pays. La comparaison entre les populations d'eléphants non dérangées et celles qui sont lourdement braconnées laisse penser que la population totale d'éléphants de forêt en Afrique centrale a été réduite de prés de 44%à cause du braconnage pour l'ivoire. Les éléphants de forêt sont plus vulnérables qu'on ne le pensait avant au braconnage parce que, au Congo par exemple, 2/3 des éléphants vivent à moins de deux jours de marche d'une route ou d'une riviére navigable.

Sacoglottis gabonensis fruiting and the seasonal movements of elephants in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon

(1) Tropical rainforests vary greatly in composition and may exhibit strong seasonality of plant production (e.g. Whitmore 1984); (2) Fruit is an important part of forest elephant diet (Alexandre 1978, Merz 1981, Short 1981, White et al., in press); (3) Forest elephant densities fluctuate locally, and even regionally, perhaps in response to fruit availability (Short 1983); (4) Mean group size is lower than for savanna elephants, perhaps because of the importance of fruit in their diet (White et al., in press).

Preliminary assessment of the status of the forest elephant in Zaire: M. P. T. Alers, A. Blom, C. S. Kiyengo, T. Masunda & R. F. W. Barnes, African Journal of Ecology, 30(4), 1992, pp 279–291

Preliminary assessment of the status of the forest elephant in Zaire: M. P. T. Alers, A. Blom, C. S. Kiyengo, T. Masunda & R. F. W. Barnes, African Journal of Ecology, 30(4), 1992, pp 279–291

Group composition and diet of forest elephants, Loxodonta africana cyclotis Matschie 1900, in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon

SummaryForest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis Matschie 1900) were observed opportunistically over a period of seven years between 1984 and 1991 in lowland rain forest in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon. Details of their group structure and diet are reported. Adult females were generally encountered accompanied by one or more offspring, and adult males were generally solitary. Mean group size was 2.8 individuals, and the mean size of a ‘Family Unit’ was 3.5 individuals. Associations of more than eight elephants were exceptional. Group sizes of elephants at Lopé were smaller than those recorded for savanna elephants in east Africa and those of Asian elephants living in Malaysian rain forest. The diet of elephants at Lopé was diverse, including a minimum of 307 items. The bulk of the diet, in terms of number of species and quantities eaten, came from leaves and bark (70% of all items recorded). Trees represented 73% of the species fed upon. In contrast to savanna‐living populations, fruit was an important part of the diet. Fruit of at least 72 species is eaten and the remains of at least one species of fruit was found in 82% of 311 fresh dung piles searched over a one‐year period.RésuméLes éléphants de forêt (Loxodonta africana cyclotis Matschie 1900) furent observés de façon opportuniste durant une période de sept ans entre 1984 et 1991 dans la forêt de basse altitude de la Réserve de la Lopé au Gabon. On rapporte des détails sur leur structure sociale et leur régime alimentaire. Les femelles adultes sont généralement rencontrées avec un ou plusieurs jeunes tandis que les mâles adultes sont généralement solitaires. La taille moyenne d'un groupe est de 2,8 individus et la taille moyenne d'une “Unité Familiale” est de 3,5 individus. Des associations de plus de huit éléphants sont exceptionnelles. Les tailles des groupes d‘éléphants à la Lopé sont plus petites que ceux des éléphants de savane observés en Afrique de l'est et que ceux des éléphants d'Asie vivant dans la forêt humide de Malaisie. Le régime alimentaire des éléphants à la Lopé est varié et comprend un minimum de 307 éléments. La majeure partie du régime alimentaire, en terme de nombre d'espèces et de quantité ingérée, provient de feuilles et d’écorce (70% de tous les éléments observés). Les arbres représentent 73% des espèces ingérées. Contrairement aux populations vivant en savane, les fruits représentent une portion importante du régime. Des fruits d'au moins 72 espèces sont mangés et les restes d'au moins une espèce de fruit fut trouvé dans 82% des 311 crotins frais examinés au cours d'une période d'un an.

Indirect methods for counting elephants in forest

The two methods most frequently used for estimating forest elephant numbers, guesses and dung counts, are discuss. Other methods such as using infrasound calls are noted, but the paper focuses on improving methodology of dung counts. Journal Table of Contents notes title as 'of counting', text notes 'for counting'.

The status of forest elephants in the south east of the Republic of Cameroon

Reviews results from the recent transect survey covering three southeastern Cameroon areas, Lake Lobeke, Mongokele and Boumba-bek where based on dung density counts estimated elephant population for the areas were 11,225, 3,723 and 3,215 respectively. The study suggests that in spite of extensive logging and poaching activity in the region the elephant populations in the three survey areas do not appear to be in immediate jeopardy.

Diet and feeding behaviour of the forest elephant in the Santchou Reserve, Cameroon

SummaryThis study reports the diet and feeding behaviour of forest elephants in Western Cameroon. Diet consisted primarily of grass (Pennisetum purpureum). Woody material (leaves and stems) made up the smallest proportion of the diet. Twenty‐two species of fruit were eaten of which seven formed a significant component of the diet: Cucurmis manii, Desplatsia subericarpa, Irvingia gabonensis, Parinari excelsa, Strychnos innocuea, Theobroma cacao and Vitex doniana. The greatest variety of fruit was available during the dry season. The frequent presence of crop seeds in the dung piles indicated that elephant incursions into the farms to feed on crops were regular. Elephants removed bark from eight species of tree but concentrated on four: Afzelia bipindensis, Coloncoba welwitschii, Bridelia ferruginea and Terminalia superba. Seventeen species were recorded as browsed. Trees in particular were favoured. Elephants fed mainly by grazing or stripping off fruits. Debarking of trees, breaking of the main stems, and uprooting or pushing over were minor feeding activities.RésuméCe travail décrit le régime et le comportement alimentaire de l'éléphant de forêt dans l'Ouest du Cameroun.Les éléphants se nourissaient surtout d'herbes (Pennisetum purpureum). Le matériel ligneux (feuilles et branches d'arbres) constituait la plus petite proportion du régime alimentaire. Vingt‐deux espèces de fruit ont été consomméses dont 7 ont constituté la partie principale de régime: Cucurmis manii, Desplatsia subericarpa, Irvingia gabonensis, Parinari excelsa, Strychnos innocuea, Theobroma cacao et Vitex doniana. C'est pendant la saison sèche que les éléphants ont disposé de la plus grande variété de fruits. La présence régulière dans les crottes de graines d'espèces cultivées indique que les incursions d'éléphants dans les plantations sont fréquentes.Les éléphants ont enlevé l'écorce de 8 espèces d'arbres mais se sont concentrés sur 4 d'entre elles: Afzelia bipindensis, Coloncoba welwitschii, Bridelia ferruginia, et Terminalia superba. Dix‐sept espèes ont été broutées. Les éléphants aimaient spécialement les arbres.Les éléphants se nourissaient principalement en broutant les herbes ou en dépouillant les arbres de leurs fruits. L'écorcage des troncs d'arbres, le brisage des tiges ou le déracinage des arbres étaient des activités secondaires du comportement alimentaire.

Elephants and ivory poaching in the forests of equatorial Africa

Reconnaissance surveys were made of the forests of four central African countries to establish, for the first time, the status of forest-dwelling elephants. The results, when combined with information from previous surveys in other countries, provide a picture of the elephant situation in the forest zone, and especially the impact of poaching. About one-third of the forest elephant population of central Africa is to be found in Zaire, and about one-third in Gabon. The rest are in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, and Congo. It is poaching for ivory, rather than the growth of human populations, which threatens the elephants of the equatorial forests.

Preliminary assessment of the status of the forest elephant in Zaire

SummaryThis paper describes the first ever survey of Zaire's forest elephants. Reconnaissance surveys were made of four large areas of forest, and information on other places was collected during discussions with people with long experience of the country. The vast forests of Zaire do not provide elephants with a safe refuge from poachers. Forest elephants have been dramatically affected by poaching for ivory. Once found throughout the forest zone, they have been eradicated from many areas and now occur in fragmented subpopulations. The remaining elephants may number only 64,000, having declined by as much as two‐thirds. Even the remotest forests have been affected. The future of Zaire's forest elephants lies in a small number of well‐protected national parks.RésuméCet article décrit la première recherche jamais effectuée sur l'éléphant de forêt du Zaïre. Les recherches ont été réalisées dans quatre vastes régions forestières et on a récolté des informations sur d'autres endroits grâce à des discussions avec des gens qui possèdent une longue expérience de la région. Les grandes forêts du Zaïre ne procurent pas aux éléphants un abri sûr contre les braconniers. Les éléphants de forêt ont été gravement touchés par le braconnage pour l'ivoire. Dès qu'ils étaient découverts quelque part dans la forét, ils en étaient exterminés et il n'en reste plus que quelques populations fragmentaires. II se pourrait qu'il n'en reste plus que 64,000, c.à d. un tiers du nombre initial. Même les parties les plus reculées de la forêt ont été touchées. L'avenir de l'éléphant de forêt zaïrois réside dans un petit nombre de pares nationaux bien protégés.

Balanites wilsoniana: elephant dependent dispersal?

ABSTRACTThis study demonstrates that forest elephants (Loxodonta africana) play a key role as seed dispersal agents for the upper canopy forest tree, Balanites wilsoniana. Seed that passed through elephants had a much greater probability of germinating (50.7%) than seeds from fruits eollected directly from the tree (3%). Of 515 seeds that were collected from under parent trees, 89.1% were rotten at the time of collection, 2.6% had been eaten by forest pigs, 2.8% had been killed by squirrels, and 0.7% had been killed by insect damage. The remaining 4.8% of the seeds were still alive. In 150 hours of focal observations on B. wilsoniana trees, two fruits were seen to be destroyed by squirrels, no fruits were seen to be consumed by potential dispersers, and no evidence of scatter hoarding was found. Experimental seedling stations placed out under parent trees and away from parent trees indicated no significant effect of dispersal on seedling survival. Although elephants are not essential for the successful germination of B. wilsoniana seeds, they do greatly increase probability of germination and play a vital role in their dispersal, suggesting that this is a highly interdependent plant-animal seed dispersal system.