Forensic Anthropology Research Articles

A Study of Species and Individual Differentiation of Burnt and Unburnt Bones Using X-Ray Fluorescence

Commingled remains analysis is a fundamental problem in bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology. In cases of commingling, the bones of all individuals represented must be accurately and reliably differentiated. X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) can identify species and individuals when bone fragments are found in archaeological or forensic contexts. The present study aimed to verify whether portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF) can be used to differentiate bone fragments at the species level (Bos taurus, Sus domesticus, Equus caballus, and Homo sapiens) and at the individual level of human individuals. We also aimed to verify whether species and individuals can be differentiated using pXRF even if the bones were burned. A total of 119 adult human bones from archaeological sites in Central Moravia and Silesia and 17 adult non-human bones from archaeological sites in Central Moravia (Czech Republic) were examined. All bones are dated to various periods (from the Bronze Age to Modern Times). When differentiating the unburnt and burnt bones at the species level, the overall accuracy of classification was 84.6% and 93.9%, respectively. When differentiating unburnt human bones at the individual level, the correct classification ranged from 88.1% to 72.7%. The differentiation of the burnt bones of humans at the individual level achieved an average success rate of more than 60%. The results confirmed that pXRF can be used for species and individual differentiation of unburnt bones and is almost equally applicable to burnt bones.

Validation of age estimation methods through the scapula in a Mediterranean non-adult population.

Age estimation methods through the metric study of bones in non-adult individuals are a frequently used tool in Biological and Forensic Anthropology; however, few methodological validation studies are available, given the limited number of adequate samples for their study. In this context, the aim of this work is to test the effectiveness of the methods of Fazekas and Kósa (1978), Saunders et al. (1993), Rissech and Black (2007) and Cardoso et al. (2017), for age estimation through the measurements of the scapula, in the non-adult osteological collection of the Anthropology Laboratory of the University of Granada (Spain), one of the most representative identified non-adult collections internationally. For this purpose, nine different measurements of the scapula were taken from a total of 149 non-adult individuals, applying the regression formulae proposed by the different authors and verifying their accuracy. Results have shown the existence of significant differences between the real age and the estimated age in almost all the tested methods, with degrees of error that differ from those obtained in the original study populations. Based on the obtained results, it is recommended to use the method of Cardoso et al. in postnatal individuals, always adjusting the degrees of error with those obtained in this work.

Speaking Truth to Power: Toward a Forensic Anthropology of Advocacy and Activism

Over the years, the field of forensic anthropology has become more diverse, bringing unique perspectives to a previously homogeneous field. This diversification has been accompanied by recognizing the need for advocacy and activism in an effort to support the communities we serve: marginalized communities that are often overrepresented in the forensic population. As such, forensic anthropologists see the downstream effects of colonialism, white supremacy, inequitable policies, racism, poverty, homophobia, transphobia, gun violence, and misogyny. Some argue that advocacy and activism have no place in forensic anthropological praxis. The counterarguments for engaging in advocacy and activism uphold white, heterosexual, cisgender, and ableist privilege by arguing that perceived objectivity and unbiased perspectives are more important than personally biasing experiences and positionality that supposedly jeopardize the science and expert testimony. Advocacy and activism, however, are not new to the practice of anthropology. Whether through sociocultural anthropology, archaeology, or other areas of biological anthropology, activism and advocacy play an important role, using both the scientific method and community engagement. Using a North American approach, we detail the scope of the issues, address how advocacy and activism are perceived in the wider discipline of anthropology, and define ways in which advocacy and activism can be utilized more broadly in the areas of casework, research, and education.

The forensic imaging technique of age progression used within missing people cases: The Italian Missing Children association realizing age progression for Missing Child Kenya

The age progression technique allows to update identification photos of individuals who have been missing for years. This method is based on the study of the facial variation and on the dynamics of facial growth. Knowledge about changes in the distribution of facial fat and the tone of the cartilage allows realistic predictions of the facial appearance after many years. Beside these elements, age progression is also supported by similar characters between family members. This is why photos of the missing and family members are used to create an age progression, making the new identikit accurate.Non-profit associations are crucial for the dissemination of information on the problem of missing persons. In Italy, the Italian Missing Children association provides for free an age progression service with the support of forensic anthropology. With the activation of a protocol, consisting of guidelines, and a form for the request for age progression by family members, the Italian Missing Children has started a collaboration with Missing Child Kenya. It allowed to disseminate up-to-date photos of the presumed current appearance of the missing children in Kenya. Thus, in the present study some cases are reported, in which age progression technique was applied.The photos provided by Italian Missing Children were shown in video documentaries made by Missing Child Kenya, allowing to continue the dissemination of age progression photo during the Covid quarantines and to keep the population active in the search for the missing.

Osteonal Damage Patterns from Ballistic and Blunt Force Trauma in Human Long Bones.

Forensic anthropologists play a key role in skeletal trauma analysis and commonly use macroscopic features to distinguish between trauma types. However, this approach can be challenging, particularly in cases of highly comminuted or incompletely recovered fractures. Histological analysis of microscopic fracture characteristics in fractured bones may thus help provide additional information on trauma type and bone fracture biomechanics in general. This study analysed the extent of microcrack damage to osteons in long bones with blunt force trauma (BFT) and gunshot trauma (GST), from both traumatic death cases and post-mortem experimental fractures. We identified four types of osteonal damage (OD). In traumatic death cases, OD affecting the inside of the osteon and compromising the Haversian canal (type 1) was found to be indicative of BFT. Moreover, OD affecting the cement line (type 3) and interstitial lamellae (type 4) was more common in the GST samples. OD affecting the inside of the osteon without compromising the Haversian canal (type 2) was not found to be indicative of either trauma type. In cases of experimental fractures, our study revealed that post-mortem fractures in dry bone samples featured the highest amount of OD, particularly of type 4. This study also found that the experimentally produced GST featured similar OD patterns to GST death cases. These findings support our hypothesis that there are distinct osteonal damage patterns in human long bones with BFT and GST, which are of relevant value for trauma analysis in forensic anthropology.

The artificial intelligence in autopsy and crime scene analysis.

In the evolving field of forensic medicine, artificial intelligence (AI) technologies may revolutionize traditional autopsy practices by enhancing the precision and efficiency of postmortem examinations. A review of the literature was carried out on the Pub-med and Scopus search engines by inserting the keywords "artificial intelligence" AND "forensic" AND ("autopsy" OR "crime scene management" OR "forensic odontology" OR "post mortem interval" OR "forensic anthropology" OR "forensic sciences"). The works that analyzed the applications of artificial intelligence in the forensic and autopsy field were analyzed. The results showed the application of different forms of artificial intelligence such as machine learning, deep learning, robotics, artificial neural networks. Various applications are therefore possible in the autopsy field including forensic identification, analysis of radiological data through Virtopsy, estimation of the weapon used through analysis of firearm damage with ballistics, estimation of the Post-Mortem Interval (PMI), forensic toxicology. AI's potential to aid in the precise identification of causes of death, estimation of postmortem intervals. With forensic pathologists facing the constant challenge of making accurate diagnoses under pressure, AI applications can offer much-needed support by reducing subjective judgment and the inherent human error due to fatigue. Therefore, the integration of AI into autopsies, while promising in terms of efficiency and accuracy, demands a careful balance between technological advancement and ethical responsibility to ensure trust and integrity in forensic practices.

Contribution of Anatomy in Forensic Age Evaluation: A Systematic Review.

The field of forensic anthropology is characterised by its ongoing development and growth. Forensic anatomy is a burgeoning discipline that focuses on the analysis and identification of both preserved and unpreserved human body parts, both in deceased individuals and the living. This subject plays a crucial role in establishing the four key factors of forensic anthropology, namely sex, age, race, and height. The objective of this research endeavour was to evaluate the significance of anatomical information in the process of forensic age estimation. The researchers established the inclusion criteria in accordance with the globally recognised Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome(PICOS) framework, as advised by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) recommendations. The research included many methodologies in order to ascertain the age. Upon conducting a comprehensive review of the existing literature pertaining to anatomical knowledge in the field of forensic age estimate, we have identified many notable applications. These include the utilisation of various anatomical features such as the dental pulp chamber, fingerprints, acetabulum, sternal end of the fourth rib, as well as hand and wrist bones for the purpose of age estimation. It is important for anatomists and other forensic scientists to engage in collaborative efforts to facilitate the exchange of ideas and ensure thorough investigations. This cooperation is particularly crucial in areas where anatomical sciences play a significant role in forensic science and investigation. Nevertheless, in order to mitigate the potential for estimating error, it is still advisable to use a multi-factorial evaluation approach that involves examining many body areas.

Origins of Forensic Anthropology in the United States

Traditional histories of forensic anthropology focus on key figures, events, and/or publications within a larger narrative of disciplinary formation and expansion. These histories typically highlight individuals such as Thomas Dwight or institutions such as the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History. This project represents an interdisciplinary collaboration with the goal of shedding new light onto the origins of forensic anthropology in the United States. By pulling from a number of published scholarly sources, as well as some unpublished correspondence, this project expands upon the more established historical events concerning the history of forensic anthropology. Here we argue that the origins of contemporary forensic anthropology not only trace back to the work of Wilton Krogman but that Krogman’s forensic anthropology must be understood through the life and work of his mentor, T. Wingate Todd, as well as the Hamann-Todd Collection, early efforts toward personal identification of human skeletal remains, and a complex amalgamation of US and UK influences that Krogman was exposed to through Todd’s mentorship efforts.

Age assessment in unaccompanied minors: assessing uniformity of protocols across Europe.

Age assessment of migrants is crucial, particularly for unaccompanied foreign minors, a population facing legal, social, and humanitarian challenges. Despite existing guidelines, there is no unified protocol in Europe for age assessment.The Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe (FASE) conducted a comprehensive questionnaire to understand age estimation practices in Europe. The questionnaire had sections focusing on the professional background of respondents, annual assessment numbers, requesting parties and reasons, types of examinations conducted (e.g., physical, radiological), followed protocols, age estimation methods, and questions on how age estimates are reported.The questionnaire's findings reveal extensive engagement of the forensic community in age assessment in the living, emphasizing multidisciplinary approaches. However, there seems to be an incomplete appreciation of AGFAD guidelines. Commonalities exist in examination methodologies and imaging tests. However, discrepancies emerged among respondents regarding sexual maturity assessment and reporting assessment results. Given the increasing importance of age assessment, especially for migrant child protection, the study stresses the need for a unified protocol across European countries. This can only be achieved if EU Member States wholeheartedly embrace the fundamental principles outlined in EU Directives and conduct medical age assessments aligned with recognized standards such as the AGFAD guidelines.

Sex estimation based on mandibular measurements.

Medical imaging and machine learning are beneficial approaches in physical and forensic anthropology. They are particularly useful for the development of models for sex identification based on bone remains. The present study uses machine learning algorithms to create models for sex estimation based on mandibular measurements. The sample included head CT scans of 239 adult Bulgarians (116 males and 123 females). Three-dimensional coordinates of 45 landmarks of the mandible were acquired from segmented polygonal models of the skulls of these individuals. Two datasets of mandibular measurements were assembled. The first dataset included 51 measurements: linear, projective, and angular measurements. The second dataset included 990 interlandmark distances. Seven machine learning algorithms (Support Vector Machines, Neural Network, Naïve Bayes, Random Forest, J48, JRip, and Logistic Regression) were applied to the two datasets, and the classification accuracy was evaluated by 10x5-cross-validation. The selection of the best subsets of attributes specific to each of the abovementioned algorithms was done based on the attribute importance evaluated by an attribute selection scheme. In general, the sub-symbolic algorithms achieved higher results than the symbolic ones, except for the logistic regression. The best classification model was learnt by the Support Vector Machines algorithm, which achieved an accuracy of 95.3% on a dataset described by 19 interlandmark distances. In both datasets, the application of advanced attribute selection has led to an increase in the classification accuracy of all algorithms used in the experiments.

The Identification Potential of Atherosclerotic Calcifications in the Context of Forensic Anthropology.

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease that, in its more developed stages, can lead to the calcification of fatty plaques on the walls of arteries, resulting in the appearance of new bone elements. It is a condition that has been studied and documented little in the context of paleopathology, especially in the framework of forensic anthropology. This article analyzed the skeletal remains of 71 individuals (35 females and 36 males) from the Luís Lopes Identified Collection of the National Museum of Natural History and Science in Lisbon, 31 of whom had an autopsy report. An attempt was made to ascertain whether these bone elements resulting from atherosclerotic calcification would resist cadaveric decomposition and whether they would be recoverable several years after burial, and a survey was carried out of their distribution according to sex and age, as well as their association with other pathologies, such as osteoporosis and cardiac and renal pathologies. An imaging analysis of an atherosclerotic plaque was also carried out to complement the macroscopic analysis and present other methods of identifying plaques. It was concluded that each atherosclerotic calcification has a unique profile, which can be useful for identification, especially in cases where the individual shows a severe condition. In terms of identification potential, the analysis of calcified atherosclerotic plaques can be useful, as they can corroborate or reject an identification. However, it always requires the existence of ante-mortem imaging exams and must always be used in addition to other identification methods. Regardless of the identification, these plaques are bone elements resulting from a pathology and should, therefore, be known and recognized by the scientific community.

Stephen David Ousley (1961-2022)

Dr. Steve Ousley—in full, Stephen David Ousley, PhD—American biological anthropologist, data analyst, general contrarian, and well-known beer aficionado, was at the forefront of forensic and biological anthropology. He was a quantitative star in the anthropological universe. On 6 November 2022, Steve succumbed to cancer, leaving behind a legacy of courage and dedication. His impact on the field of biological anthropology will be remembered for generations to come. Colleagues, friends, and family alike will always hold him dear in their hearts, celebrating his accomplishments and the unwavering spirit with which he approached life. Steve’s life and legacy serve as an inspiring reminder of the power of determination, perseverance, and dedication. His contributions to forensic anthropology and his dedication to friends and family exemplify the depth of his character. Although he is no longer with us, his legacy lives on through his work, the lives he touched, and the memories he left behind.

Testing the accuracy of the SexEst software for sex estimation in a modern Greek sample

AbstractSex estimation from human skeletal remains is fundamental in osteoarcheology and forensic anthropology. The increasing availability of reference skeletal collections across the world has allowed the development of morphological and metric methods for skeletal sex estimation, some of which may be implemented in specialized computer software. The present study aims to evaluate the freely available SexEst software, which utilizes cranial and postcranial measurements, and different classification models for sex estimation, on a contemporary Greek population comprising of 227 (126 males and 101 females) adult individuals. After the calculation of intra‐observer error to assess the repeatability of the measurements, the proposed variables were tested for classification accuracy individually and in different combinations. Based on the results, the postcranial models outperformed the cranial ones in all cases and can be adequately applied on a Greek population sample. The light gradient boosting (LGB) algorithm yielded the highest correct classification rates when no missing values exist, while the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) models should only be used when dealing with missing data. The highest classification accuracy for a 0.65 posterior probability threshold was reached when utilizing a combination of postcranial variables (89.67%), while the lowest was achieved with the cranial measurement “Glabella‐occipital length” (45.00%). The same models yielded the highest and lowest accuracy for a 0.5 probability threshold, with values of 92.96% and 67.73%, respectively. Combining variables yielded higher accuracies in both skeletal regions, suggesting that the software would be more helpful in cases of intact skeletons. The loss of classification accuracy due to population specificity further corroborates the need to include different ancestries in sex estimation software.

Prospective Study on Estimation of Stature of Adult from Length of Clavicle in a Tertiary Care Hospital in Tamilnadu

Forensic anthropology can play an important role in the identification process. Besides determination of race, sex and age of the unknown individual, estimation of stature enhances the reliability of identification. It is easier to get those data when the whole body or the entire skeleton isavailable to the forensic anthropologist. However incases of deliberate mutilation and disposal in parts, interference by wild animal and bomb blast by terrorist attack, recovery of the whole body or complete skeleton may not be possible. In those cases, in the forensic anthropologists have to give this opinion based upon the available supplied skeleton remains. Although approximate stature of the individual can be estimated from most of the long bones using either multiplication factors or regressionformulae, studies on estimation of stature from clavicle are limited. In the past, Terry, Oliver and Thieeme have tried to estimate the stature of the individual from clavicle. So the present study is planned to determine the stature from clavicle.

Technical Note: Individuals identified by radiographic comparison: A sample of demographics and the region of body used for identification in Clark County, Nevada, USA (2017–2020)

Radiographs regularly aid in identifications by comparing antemortem and postmortem images. The forensic community has widely accepted this method because radiographic images are low in cost, easily transferable, and generally believed to be uncomplicated to assess. However, there is a dearth of diverse, modern radiographic datasets as well as a deficiency in assessing population frequencies of nonmetric traits via radiographs. Further, radiographic comparisons, although typically required as a core competency of practicing forensic anthropologists, do not have standard training and education requirements. To understand the diversity and representation within an opportunistic dataset, we provide a case study of the demographics of decedents identified via radiographic comparison at the Clark County Office of the Coroner/Medical Examiner (CCOCME) in Las Vegas, NV, USA from 2017 to 2020. Additionally, we examined each region of the body used to make radiographic identifications. The sample was majority Caucasian and male, with a mean and median age at death of 64.9 years and 67.0 years, respectively. Our results indicated that this sample was not representative of the greater Clark County population. The most common body region used for comparisons was the chest, followed by the head and neck, pelvis, dentition, and the extremities. Thus, large generalizations made from these types of datasets must be implemented with caution due to the relative lack of diversity and representation. As well, current discussions regarding training and education of forensic anthropologists as they relate to radiographic comparisons are explored.

Bomb pulse 14 C evidence for consistent remodeling rates of cortical femur collagen in middle-late adulthood.

Bomb pulse (BP) radiocarbon (14 C) dating methods are used by forensic anthropologists to estimate the year-of-death (YOD) of unidentified individuals. Method resolution and accuracy depend on establishing lag times, or the difference between a tissue's BP 14 C-derived year and the YOD, of various tissue types from known deceased persons. Bone lag times span many years and are thought to increase with age as a function of slowing remodeling rates. However, remodeling rates for various skeletal elements, bone structures and phases are not well known. Here a simple method is used to estimate bone remodeling rates from a compilation of published cortical femur bone collagen BP 14 C measurements (n = 102). Linear regression models and nonparametric tests are used to detect changes in lag times and remodeling rates with increasing age-at-death. Remodeling rates and lag times of 3.5%/year and 29 years, respectively, are estimated from individuals aged 40-97 years. In contrast to previous work, the analysis yielded modest and negligible changes in remodeling rates and lag times with advancing age. Moreover, statistically significant differences in remodeling rates and lag times were not found between reported females and males. Implications for the temporal contexts within an individual's lifetime of biogeochemical data in archaeology and forensic anthropology are discussed, warranting additional BP 14 C studies of known individuals and integration with histomorphometric analysis.

Accessory tympanic plate ossicle: a new osteological entity.

The auricular cartilage, which is typically soft and flexible, can calcify or ossify because of diseases such as diabetes mellitus, trauma, radiation therapy for cancer, and more commonly from frostbite. Calcified, ossified, or hardened auricular cartilage is a rare finding in the clinical literature and appears to be absent in the physical and forensic anthropological literature. This study examines the ossified auricular cartilage and tests whether the hypothesis can be identified in postmortem skeletonized tissue and be part of the external auditory meatus. A total of 290 crania were examined for accessory ossicles. A descriptive and interpretative analysis was performed grossly, histologically, and morphometrically to document the morphology and location of the ossicles, investigate their structure, and perform hypothesis testing. Results revealed that seven females and one male crania from a total of 290 crania (2.76%) exhibit semi-ossified auricular cartilage attached to the tympanic plate of the temporal bone. The morphology and location of the ossicles at the junction of the auricle and external auditory meatus indicate they are hardened auricular cartilage that was verified with histological observations. Regression analysis indicates that addition of the ossicle to the depth of the auditory tube significantly changes coefficient of determination (R2) with respect to cranial breadth. In conclusion, results indicate that small cartilaginous structures of the external ear may ossify forming accessory tympanic plate ossicles that potentially could be identified in skeletal remains as a new osteological entity. This report highlights the types of information that can be gained using an approach that integrates forensic anthropology, gross anatomy, and histology.

The Precision, Inter-Rater Reliability, and Accuracy of a Handheld Scanner Equipped with a Light Detection and Ranging Sensor in Measuring Parts of the Body-A Preliminary Validation Study.

Anthropometric measurements play a crucial role in medico-legal practices. Actually, several scanning technologies are employed in post-mortem investigations for forensic anthropological measurements. This study aims to evaluate the precision, inter-rater reliability, and accuracy of a handheld scanner in measuring various body parts. Three independent raters measured seven longitudinal distances using an iPad Pro equipped with a LiDAR sensor and specific software. These measurements were statistically compared to manual measurements conducted by an operator using a laser level and a meterstick (considered the gold standard). The Friedman test revealed minimal intra-rater variability in digital measurements. Inter-rater variability analysis yielded an ICC = 1, signifying high agreement among the three independent raters. Additionally, the accuracy of digital measurements displayed errors below 1.5%. Preliminary findings demonstrate that the pairing of LiDAR technology with the Polycam app (ver. 3.2.11) and subsequent digital measurements with the MeshLab software (ver. 2022.02) exhibits high precision, inter-rater agreement, and accuracy. Handheld scanners show potential in forensic anthropology due to their simplicity, affordability, and portability. However, further validation studies under real-world conditions are essential to establish the reliability and effectiveness of handheld scanners in medico-legal settings.

A new, deep learning-based method for the analysis of autopsy kidney samples used to study sex differences in glomerular density and size in a forensic population.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly used in forensic anthropology and genetics to identify the victim and the cause of death. The large autopsy samples from persons with traumatic causes of death but without comorbidities also offer possibilities to analyze normal histology with AI. We propose a new deep learning-based method to rapidly count glomerular number and measure glomerular density (GD) and volume in post-mortem kidney samples obtained in a forensic population. We assessed whether this new method detects glomerular differences between men and women without known kidney disease. Autopsies performed between 2009 and 2015 were analyzed if subjects were aged ≥ 18years and had no known kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, or hypertension. A large biopsy was taken from each kidney, stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and scanned. An in-house developed deep learning-based algorithm counted the glomerular density (GD), number, and size. Out of 1165 forensic autopsies, 86 met all inclusion criteria (54 men). Mean (± SD) age was 43.5 ± 14.6; 786 ± 277 glomeruli were analyzed per individual. There was no significant difference in GD between men and women (2.18 ± 0.49 vs. 2.30 ± 0.57 glomeruli/mm2, p = 0.71); glomerular diameter, area, and volume also did not differ. GD correlated inversely with age, kidney weight, and glomerular area. Glomerular area and volume increased significantly with age. In this study, there were no sex differences in glomerular density or size. Considering the size of the kidney samples, the use of the presented deep learning method can help to analyze large renal autopsy biopsies and opens perspectives for the histological study of other organs.

The integration and implications of artificial intelligence in forensic science.

This commentary explores the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in forensic science and its potential implications. The applications of AI in forensic disciplines such as medicine, forensic anthropology, digital forensics, and taphonomy have enhanced the accuracy and efficiency of identification processes and the analysis of digital evidence. However, this rapid advancement prompts critical considerations in privacy, data protection, bias and fairness, and the accuracy and reliability of AI systems. The inherent challenges of the "black box" nature of AI algorithms call for transparency and accountability to maintain trust and uphold the integrity of forensic investigations. Ethical use, legal compliance, interdisciplinary collaboration, education, data integrity, standardization, human oversight, and societal impact, along with sustainability are identified as pivotal areas requiring urgent attention. The discussion underscores the need for rigorous scrutiny, standardized operating procedures, and proactive dialogue to ensure the responsible advancement of AI in forensic science.